Shorter Jeff Jacoby

That I'm alive proves this whole "death thing" is a leftist, alarmist myth.

Impacts of Unnatural lake level regulation on wetlands, beaches, fish, aquatic plants and water quality

This is a large collection of studies and information about the impacts of lake level regulation.
It is a work in progress. We will add more studies as we gather them . Any studies, memos, government documents, newspaper articles about this issue can be sent to for inclusion :

1993 Methods of Alleviating the Adverse Consequences of Fluctuating Water levels in the Great Lakes- St. Lawrence River Basin- International Joint Commission
p. 6 “While each wetland is unique , narrowing the range of water level fluctuations generally results in less wetland acreage and less diverse plant communities, and often results in dominance by some plant species. For example, the Study Board concluded that the reduction on the range of water level fluctuations resulting from regulation has adversely affected the extent and diversity of Lake Ontario ’s wetlands.

Shallow Lakes- Soil and Water Conservation Society of Metro Halifax
April 3, 2006 http://lakes.chebucto.org/shallow.html
p.4 “Ecological feedback mechanisms are thus an important reason why restoration of the vegetated clear water state is difficult. In many cases, nutrient reduction alone may be insufficient to restore the clear in shallow lakes. Additional measures, however, such as removal of part of the fish stock and changes in the water level, have been successfully used as a way to break the feedback that keeps such lakes turbid.”

Review of the IJC Order for Rainy and Namakan Lakes 1998.03.03 p.26
“The recent modeling exercise with respect to natural(unregulated) lake levels has confirmed that both lakes have been markedly altered as habitat for fish. Changes have been wrought in levels per se, in the timing of lake level maxima and minima, and in the amount of variability. Pertaining to both lake levels and the timing of hydrological events. The greatest changes in absolute terms have been manifested in reduced lake-level variability.”

p.28 The operation of the Rainy and Namakan chain of lakes as impoundments for hydropower generation and flood control affects the quality of the environment. , regardless of water level regulation plan followed. They are impoundments with higher water levels than prior to their operation and natural water level conditions are not possible. But it is possible to regulate the reservoirs in a manner that more closely matches the unregulated, natural hydrologic regime. Inter-annual variability in water levels is not being addressed by the proposal, yet it is an important consideration to optimize the aquatic plant community. “

“Infrequent occurring events, both high and low water, are characteristics of unregulated hydrologic regimes and are key factors in regulated aquatic system management. Sustained low water conditions for a period will lower overall productivity of the area during a drought , but benefits such as future increased plant productivity outweighs the short term losses. High water events often temporarily upset terrestrial habitat conditions, but the temporary disturbance s to these areas have been shown to be critical to its perpetuation. We suggest that the IJC ruling occasionally allow operation outside the proposed water level regulation band. It has been shown in a number of studies the key to optimum habitat management is infrequent extreme events.”

p.30 “ The point of this of this example is, the further the water level declines during the growing season, the more the littoral zone would be affected. Supporting documentation shows a well-developed littoral area forms the base of the food web and the system is driven by base habitat conditions. We believe a greater bandwidth during this period would allow more management control to optimize overall habitat conditions on the Namakan system. The key to proper management of these lakes lies in optimizing water level control during the summer months. The habitat would be vastly improved by allowing more dramatic water level changes during this period.”

Coops, H and S.H. Hosper 2002
Lake and Reservoir Management 18(4): 293-298
Water level Management as a tool for the restoration of shallow lakes in the Netherlands.
“Water-level fluctuations are among the major driving forces for shallow lake ecosystems. ….. Restoration of natural water level regimes, which is likely to lead to enhancement of water quality and biodiversity, may occur in two ways: (1) expanding the critical limits between which the water level is allowed to fluctuate annually. , and /or (2) incidental recessions of the water level. It is stressed that ecologically-based water-level regimes should be incorporated into the context of multiple use of lakes”

Goldsborough, G and D. Wrubleski
Ecology and Management of Shallow Lakes Symposium, 134th Annual Meeting of the American Fisheries Society, Aug 22-26 2004
Effects of stabilized water levels on Lake Manitoba on the natural history of Delta Marsh in south central Manitoba, Canada
Delta Marsh, on the sore of Lake Manitoba in south-central Manitoba, has become highly turbid over the last 4 decades. The shift from a former clear state is due, in part, to stabilization of lake water levels in 1961. Our studies over the past six years have documented other changes, including a loss of submerged macrophytes and emergent plant islands from marsh bays, deteriorating water quality, and encroachment of hybrid cattails into shallow inshore areas. …. A proposal by multistakeholder group is presently advocating the partial deregulation of Lake Manitoba as a remedial measure for Delta Marsh and other coastal wetlands; the process by which consensus will be achieved will be discussed”.

Schumace, E. , S. Beyler, and T. Zagar
Ecology and Management of Shallow Lakes Symposium 134th Annual Meeting of the American Fisheries Society, August 22nd-26th 2004
Shallow lake restoration: Big Muskego 1996-2004
“Prior to our project, 900 hectare Big Muskego Lake was mired in a turbid, algae-dominated state for decades, after elimination of treated sewerage effluent in 1984, it remained turbid; generating little recreation associated wit fisheries and wildlife. Intent on shifting the lake’s environment to a macrophyte dominated, clear water state, we began our project in fall, 1995 with an 18-month water level drawdown. We removed the carp dominated fish population, restocked 20 native fish species, and enacted restrictive fishing regulations to promote biomanipulation. Of algae grazing zooplankton and. constructed a mechanical and electrical carp barrier to prevent carp decolonization. Post project we have seen marked improvement in Trophic State Index values and electrofishing catch per unit of effort of desirable native fish. In a hemi-marsh mosaic of interspersed cattails and open water, desirable macrophytes now dominate the environment. Despite a partial winterkill of the fish population and recolonization by carp, the lake remains in the clear-water state.”

P. Chow-Fraser , V.Lougheed, V.Le Thiec, Barb Crosbie, L.Simser and J. Lord
Long-term response of the biotic community to fluctuating water levels and changes in water quality in Cootes Paradise Marsh, a degraded coastal wetland of Lake Ontario.
Wetlands Ecology Management, Vol 6, Number 1 March 1998 page 19-42

Abstract: During the early 1900’s, more than 90% of the surface area of Cootes Paradise Marsh was covered with emergent; currently, less than 15% of the surface is covered with aquatic vegetation and the remainder is wind-swept, turbid open water. The loss of emergent vegetation is significantly correlated with mean annual water levels that increased 1.5 meters over the past 60 years. “

World-Class Wetlands on Lake Winnipeg
“ The artificial stabilization of water levels on Lake Winnipeg
is causing the physical structure of Netly-Libau marsh to be altered,
leading to the loss of wetland habitat. In 1960, before stabilization of water levels on Lake Winnipeg, there were 50 individual water bodies within the marsh, whereas in 1980, after stabilization, the number has decreased to 17.” Highlighted “ The capability of the marsh to support wildlife has been reduced. Stabilized water levels are recognized as the principle factor affecting the marsh and its flora and fauna. “

Restoring the Health of Lake Winnipeg
A Report by the Lake Winnipeg Implementation Committee 2005

At roughly 10,000 acres (4,000 ha), Swan Lake located in Nicollet County, Minnesota, is considered the largest prairie pothole lake to exist within North America (Figure 1.).
Up until the mid-1950’s Swan Lake was still subjected to these natural cyclic weather patterns and still remained in relatively good health even with the changes brought on by more intensive farming practices in the upland areas of the watershed. In the late 1950’s the installation of a fixed crest water level structure at the outlet, affected the natural wet/dry cyclic equilibrium of the lake. Many years of sustained high water levels ensued, causing a significant degradation of the emergent vegetation in Swan Lake.
The Swan Lake Restoration Project ( Minnesota )
Cyrus Mahmoodi
Even as late as the late 1950’s Swan Lake was still considered to be a more or less healthy, self-sustaining ecosystem. Drought in the early 1900’s and again during the 1930’s were both followed by normal to high precipitation periods (MnDNR, 1987). Swan Lake continued to function both as a breeding area for waterfowl such as blue-wing teal (Anas dicors) and mallards (Anas platyhynchos) and a staging area for migrating waterfowl like lesser scaup (Aythya affinis) and canvas back (Aythya valisineria). Suitable food and cover were still relatively abundant. Disturbances caused by dairy production in the upland areas of the watershed didn’t seem to have a great impact on brood production of upland nesting waterfowl. Periodic water level fluctuations continued to occur, promoting emergent vegetative growth during years of below average precipitation, providing both food and cover for waterfowl.
Schultz (1985) found that changes in water level had pronounced effects on the density and distribution of both emergent and submergent vegetation in Swan Lake. Prolonged stabilized water depths have detrimental effects on emergent aquatic vegetation (Harris and Marshall, 1963). Many species of emergent aquatic plants need bare mud flats for successful germination and establishment (Harris and Marshall, 1963). The longer the period of time the water level of Swan Lake remained high, the greater the area of open water (Schultz, 1985). Wind-induced wave action in unprotected open areas causes the suspension of detritus from the lake bottom increasing turbidity (Dieter, 1990). Schultz (1984) found the turbidity was inversely proportional to the percentage emergent vegetative cover in Swan Lake. As the area of open water increased, the turbidity of Swan Lake increased. Turbidity decreases the depth that light can penetrate the water column, thus inhibiting the growth of emergent and submergent vegetation (Chow-Fraser et al. 1998; Chambers and Prepas; 1988, Dieter 1990; Skubinna et al., 1995). The relative abundance and diversity of submergent vegetation decreased as the turbidity increased in Swan Lake (Schultz, 1985).
Water chemistry tests indicate Swan Lake has a relatively good water quality especially in comparison to neighboring watersheds.

A large portion of the feasibility study is devoted to prospects for restoring some aspects of river ecology on the Upper Mississippi River and Illinois Waterway. These plans for “restoration” have evolved considerably since the feasibility study was initiated over ten years ago, including many developments since our first report that we are likely to comment on in our next two reports. The Corps’ plans for ecosystem restoration within the feasibility study generally consist of a very large menu of possible “projects” that could be implemented. Some means, however, must be devised to prioritize efforts aimed at enhancing ecological conditions across this river system. That is, the possible number of actions is very large; resources for all these proposals would not be immediately available; and such efforts will necessarily proceed on different schedules, with a range of operations and implementation strategies and considerations. Modern theories of river science, supported by reports from other National Research Council committees and within the scientific literature, hold that the restoration of natural processes is the key to increasing the productivity of altered ecosystems such as the Upper Mississippi River. Examples of these processes include a river system’s natural cycles of high and low flows and the connectivity between a river channel and its natural floodplain. The restoration of some degree of these natural processes holds the best promise for significant improvements to river ecology in the Upper Mississippi-Illinois system. Priority should therefore be given to restoration projects that aim to restore natural processes.
REVIEW OF THE U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS RESTRUCTURED UPPER MISSISSIPPI RIVER-ILLINOIS WATERWAY FEASIBILITY STUDY
Statement of
John J. Boland, Ph.D.
Professor Emeritus, Department of Geography and Environmental Engineering
Johns Hopkins University

And

Chair, Committee to Review the Corps of Engineers Restructured 
Upper Mississippi River-Illinois Waterway Draft Feasibility Study
Water Science and Technology Board
and
Transportation Research Board National Research Board The National Academies
Before the
Subcommittee on Water Resources and Environment Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure
U.S. House of Representatives
June 24, 2004


Regulation of Water Levels on Lake Manitoba and along the Fairford River, Pinemuta Lake, Lake St. Martin and Dauphin River and Related Issues.

A Report to the Manitoba Minister of Conservation
Vol 2: Maine Report July 2003
Oshawa Second Marsh
The Second Marsh, located east of Toronto, is the largest coastal Great Lake wetland in the Greater Toronto area, and is one of the few remaining Lake Ontario shoreline wetlands adjacent to a large urban centre. Prior to the mid-1970s, the Marsh supported a healthy community of game fish, reptiles, amphibians, birds, mammals and a variety of vegetation including many rare species of plants and animals. Since then, it has been affected by increased sediment and turbidity, pollution, and disturbed patterns of water flow due to urban development and its proximity to Metro Toronto, and due to increases in forestry and agricultural land use in adjacent areas. In the mid-1970s, the western outlet of Second Marsh was dyked to raise the water level. As a result, the central area of the Marsh suffered a complete and extensive die-off of emergent vegetation. Also, the barrier beach was breached at the eastern end of the Marsh, thereby relocating the outflow. This changed the pattern of waterflow resulting in increased deposition of sediment and further degradation of wildlife habitat.
http://www.on.ec.gc.ca/wildlife/factsheets/fs_amphibians-e.html

Meryem Beklioglu1, 2 and Brian Moss1
(1) Department of Environmental and Evolutionary Biology, The University of Liverpool, L69 3BX, UK
(2) Department of Biology, Middle East Technical University, 06531 Ankara, Turkey

Received: 18 October 1995 Revised: 13 August 1996 Accepted: 20 August 1996
Abstract Little Mere, a small shallow lake, has been monitored for four years, since its main source of nutrients (sewage effluent) was diverted. The lake has provided strong evidence for the persistence of a clear water state over a wide range of nutrient concentrations. It had clear water at extremely high nutrient concentrations prior to effluent diversion, associated with high densities of the large body-sized grazer, Daphnia magna, associated with low fish densities and fish predation. Following sewage effluent diversion in 1991, the nutrient concentrations significantly declined, the oxygen concentrations rose, and fish predation increased. The dominance of large body-sized grazers shifted to one of relatively smaller body-sized animals but the clear water state has been maintained. This is probably due to provision of refuges for grazers by large nymphaeid stands (also found prior to diversion). There has been a continued decrease in nutrient concentrations and expansion of the total macrophyte coverage, largely by submerged plants, following effluent diversion. The grazer community of Little Mere has also responded to this latter change with a decline in daphnids and increase in densities of weed-associated grazers. The presence of large densities of such open water grazers was the apparent main buffer mechanisms of the clear water state until 1994. The lake has, so far, maintained its clear water in the absence of such grazers. Thus, new buffer mechanisms appear to operate to stabilize the ecosystem. Little Mere appears to have shifted from previous top-down controlled clear water state to a bottom-up controlled clear water state.

Iowa Department of Natural Resources
Iowa’s Water-Ambient Monitoring Program Jan 2008 Water Fact Sheet 2008-4
Shallow Lakes in Iowa
Water Quality and Biological Monitoring

Page 1, Since the early 1900’s water quality in most of Iowa’s shallow, natural lakes has slowly declined. Numerous causes have contributed to these declines, but the most important and prevalent causes are sustained high water levels, introduction of rough fish, and increased silt and nutrients. These changes have cause increased turbidity, which reduces vegetation. The loss of aquatic plant life further exacerbated declines in water quality and game fish populations (in lakes were game fish were historically present).
Submerged and emergent plants maintain high water quality by anchoring sediment, preventing it from becoming suspended. Plants also compete with unicellular algae for nutrients and minimize wave energy, which can resuspend sediment. This sediment contains nutrients that become available to algae when suspended. Aquatic plants also provide food and habitat for invertebrates, which, in turn, are essential for, bait fish. Small game fish, and waterfowl. Plants also provide cover for young fish and a substrate for egg deposition by game fish such as northern pike and perch. Many of Iowa’s shallow lakes have lost nearly all submerged and emergent vegetation, and excessive turbidity and algal blooms are common. As a result, the fisheries and waterfowl use in these lakes have suffered.
In an effort to improve water quality and bring back abundant vegetation for fish and wildlife, the Iowa Dept. Of Natural Resources (DNR)) Wildlife and Fisheries bureaus are planning renovations on a number of these lakes. These efforts are in conjunction with Ducks Unlimited’s “Living Lakes Initiative”. a conservation effort focused on shallow lakes improvements in Iowa and Minnesota(www.ducks.org/conservation/iniative84/aspx)

p.2 Diagrams to the right: Shallow lakes usually exist in one of two possible states: clear (1,3) or turbid (2). Without management actions, lakes in the turbid water state will not improve. However, with appropriate management activities these lakes can quickly “flip” back tot eh clear water state.

1. Pre-settlement state- Clean, clear water, Abundant waterfowl, Abundant, diverse emergent and submerged plants, fluctuating water depth, lots of invertebrate and zooplankton, Absence of rough fish, Abundant recreational opportunities
2. . Influence of Human Landscape- Turbid water, Introduction of rough fish, Increased drainage to lake, more nutrients and silt, Sustained high water levels, loss of vegetation, invertebrates, and plankton, Less waterfowl, dominance of phytoplankton, few recreational opportunities
3. Restoration management- Water level manipulation and land use improvements: Clean, clear water, Abundant Waterfowl, Plant Regrowth, Rough Fish Removal, Binding of sediments by plants/sediment control, Abundant recreational opportunities.

Wisconsin Lake’s partnership
www.dnr.state.wi.us/org/water/fhp/lakes/onceupon.pdf
P.2 Since the 1997 drawdown, water clarity in Big Muskego is the best it has been in over 30 years. Plant biodiversity has increase, along with an increase in waterfowl and other wildlife. The native fish population is thriving. Residents on Wind Lake and Big Muskego are pleased with the way this story unfolds.

FRESHWATER BIOLOGY
Volume 48 issue 3 pages 519-531
Feb 13,2003
F.C.J.M. Roozen, G.J. Geest, B.W. Ibelings, R. Roijackers, M. Scheffer , and A.D. Buijse

Lake Age and water level affect the turbidity of floodplain lakes along the lower Rhine.

Abstract
Summary
1.We sampled a set of 93 lakes situated in the floodplains of the lower River Rhine in search for morphometric and other factors that explain their variations in clarity.
2. Lakes with a drop in summer water level were less turbid at the time of sampling, mainly because of a lower concentration of inorganic suspended solids (ISS).
3. We also found that older lakes were more turbid than younger lakes and that this was largely because of an increase in phytoplankton.
4. Water clarity was positively related to lake depth and the presence of vegetation.
5. Model calculation indicated that the underwater light climate was strongly affected by chlorophyll and the ISS, the latter being the dominant factor affecting secchi depth.
Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) was less important.
6. The high concentration of ISS suggests that intensive resuspension occurs in most of the lakes. Using a simple wave model, and assuming that vegetation protects sediments against resuspension, we could eliminate wind resuspension as an important process in 90% of the lakes, leaving resuspension by benthivorous fishes probably the most important factor determining transparency.
7. Chlorophyll a concentration showed a strong positive correlation to ISS concentration, suggesting that resuspension may also have a positive effect on phytoplankton biomass in these lakes.
8. In conclusion, in-lake processes, rather than rive dynamics, seem to be driving the turbidity of floodplain lakes along the lower River Rhine.

.
Limnology, Oceanogr 49(5) 2004 p.1896-1906
Floods can cause large interannual differences in littoral net ecosystem productivity
Tuula Larmola, Jukka Alm, Sari Juutinen and Sanna Saarnio , Pertti J. Martkainen , Jouko Silvola

Abstract
Littoral wetlands comprise a terrestrial to aquatic curriculum along which carbon dioxide is exchanged with the atmosphere and organic carbon is transferred to lakes. Net ecosystem productivity- the difference between atmospheric CO2 uptake and total ecosystem respiration- in these shore areas depends partly on the extent and duration of spring flooding. …………….
…. An extended flooding period greatly reduces the amount of litter produced in a specific year. In both flooding patterns, the littoral zone was an overall net CO2 emitter, but the large variation in decomposition rate suggests that there are differences in the load if organic matter from the littoral to the pelagic zone.


Baker, L.A., and E.B. Swain 1989 Review of Lake Management in Minnesota, Lake and Reservoir Management 5(2): 1-10

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Experimental Determination of the Impacts of Sediment Desiccation and Rewetting on Sediment Physical and Chemical Characteristics in Lawrence Lake, Pool 8, Upper Mississippi River
by William F. James, John W. Barko, and Harry L. Eakin

Summary: Experimental desiccation and rewetting of sediments from Lawrence Lake in Pool 8 of the Upper Mississippi River resulted in a decline in moisture content and organic matter, and an increase in sediment density, indicating consolidation of sediment. Pore water and iron-bound P, and rates of P release under anoxic conditions declined, while aluminum-and calcium- bound P increased as a result of desiccation-rewetting, resulting in a net increase in the sediment refractory P pool. Labile and refactory organic P in the sediment did not change as a result of the desiccation-rewetting process. Pore water
and NH4-N and NO2NO3-N release from the sediment. However, there
was an overall net loss of organic N as a result of the desiccation-rewetting process that could not be accounted for by increases in other N fractions. This pattern suggested that N was being lost to the atmosphere via denitrification as a result of the desiccation-rewetting process.
Increases in available N, coupled with consolidation of flocculent sediments, suggested that desiccation of sediment in Lawrence Lake will likely result in improved condition for macrophyte growth.
Experimental Determination of the Impacts of Sediment Desiccation and Rewetting on Sediment Physical and Chemical Characteristics in Lawrence Lake, Pool 8, Upper Mississippi River
by William F. James, John W. Barko, and Harry L. Eakin

Batzer,D.P., and V. H. Resh 1992 Wetland management strategies that enhance waterfowl habitats can also control mosquitoes. Journal of the American Mosquito control Association 8(2): 117-125
………….A study conducted in perennial water cattail wetland in Minneapolis St. Paul, Minnesota, demonstrated that a temporary water level drawdown , designed to enhance waterfowl habitat quality of perennial-water wetlands, also reduced densities of Coquill ettidia perturbans mosquito larvae. These mosquitoes disappeared immediately after the drawdown, but even after water depths were restored to predrawdown levels, significant numbers do not reappear until 4 years postdrawdown, but the effect of drawdown was greater in stands of emergent cattail than in floating
cattail.



Baxter, R. M... and P. Glaude. 1980. Environmental effects of dams and impoundments in Canada: Experience and prospects. Canadian Bulletin of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 205: 1-34
Review of literature on environmental impacts of dams, including info on water level fluctuations and drawdown zones.


Benson, N.G, and P.L. Hudsoon 1975
Effects of a reduced fall drawdown on benthos abundance in Lake Francis Case. Transaction of the American Fisheries Society 14:526-528. ....Reduced drawdown in fall seemingly allowed silt deposits to form at higher elevation and increase the amount of habitat for organisms requiring soft substrates.

Cohen, Y., and P. Radomski. 1993. Water level regulation and fisheries in Rainy Lake and the Namakan Reservoir. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 50:1934-1945

The difference between the yearly maximum and minimum water levels (YMXR) is an index of lake dynamics : shoals are exposed and inundated, nutrients are oxidized and reduced, and the diversity and density of the aquatic plant community are affected. Shoals and emergent macrophytes provide spawning habitat for fish. The 5 year moving variance of YMXR fluctuates regularly with periods of about 11.2 years)periodicity of sunspot cycles) . This reflects the effects of within-year consecutive periods of storms and dry spells. Water level regulation resulted in changes in both consecutive amplitude and frequencies of YMXR compared with natural fluctuation. We established links between fluctuations in YMXR compared with natural fluctuations. We established links between fluctuation in YMXR and fluctuations in fish populations. Water level regulations, through their effects on YMXR, corresponded to changes in interspecies interactions on Rainy Lake and the Namakan Reservoir. .......... Regulations should consider frequencies and amplitudes of changes in water level and their effect on fish populations.

Fox, J.L., P.L. Brezonik, and M.A. Keirn. 1977. Lake drawdown as a method of improving water quality. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Research Laboratory, Corvallis, Oregon, EPA-600/3-77-005 94 pp

Gottgens., J.F.., andT.L. Crisman. 1993 Quantitative impacts of lake-level stabilization on material transfer between water and sediment in Newmans Lake, Florida. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 50:1610-1616.
Spillways at lake outlets reduce water -level fluctuations but may accelerate sedimentation in the lake......... Dams designed to reduce water level fluctuations may provide short-term benefits for lake access and navigation but in the log-term may accelerate deposition of nutrient -rich detritus, reduce lake volume, cloud the water, alter plant communities, and change lake productivity.




Lubinski, K.S,. G. Carmody, D. Wilcox, and B. Drazkowski 1991. Development of water level regulation strategies for fish and wildlife, Upper Mississippi River System. Regulated River: Research and Management 6:117-124





Suzanne McGowan1, 2 Contact Information, Peter R. Leavitt1 and Roland I. Hall1, 3
(1) Department of Biology, University of Regina, Regina, Saskatchewan, S4S 0A2, Canada
(2) Present address: School of Geography, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG7 ZRD, UK
(3) Present address: Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada

Received: 15 October 2003 Accepted: 10 May 2004 Published online: 9 September 2005
Abstract: Lake-level fluctuations are common in the North American Great Plains region, where large-scale climate systems (El Niño, the Pacific Decadal Oscillation) and periodic droughts cause substantial hydrologic variability in both summer and winter. To date, most such research has focused on the effects of summer droughts on prairie lake ecosystems; therefore, we studied the impact of water-level decline during winter on ecosystem structure and function. Specifically, we hypothesized that lower lake levels during winter would increase anoxia, freezing and scouring of benthos, fish kills, herbivory grazing by zooplankton, and nutrient release from sediments. In addition, we tested the hypothesis that winter droughts may initiate a switch between alternative stable states (turbid, clear). Physical, chemical, and biological variables were monitored from 1996 to 2001 in both Wascana Lake, which experienced a 50% decline in lake level, and Buffalo Pound Lake, where water levels were constant. A combination of before-after-control-impact (BACI) and multivariate analyses showed that drawdown resulted in elevated NH4-N concentrations following reinundation; otherwise there were few detectable effects on lake water chemistry (PO4-P, NO3-N, total dissolved nitrogen, total dissolved carbon) or pelagic food web structure (phytoplankton, zooplankton), and the experimental lake remained in a macrophyte-rich state. There was, however, a 2.5-fold increase in macrophyte abundance and a shift from a community dominated by Ceratophyllum demersum before drawdown to one composed of Potamogeton pectinatus after manipulation. Overall, the lack of substantial dewatering effects suggests that lakes of the northern Great Plains may be resilient to severe winter conditions, possibly because of the recruitment of fish from regional metapopulations during summer. Further, our results indicate that lower water levels during winter likely promote the buffer mechanisms that reinforce a macrophyte-rich, clear-water state in shallow prairie lakes.

Baker, L.A., and E.B. Swain 1989. Review of lake management in Minnesota. Lake and Reservoir Management 5(2):1-10
-Drawdown, as a management option, was only used n Highland Lake , Minnesota, as part of the clean lakes project. The drawdown was intended to remove phosphorus rich hypolimnetic water form the lake, reduce future release of phosphorus from the sediments, and consolidate the sediments. Because other management techniques were applied at the same time, it is unclear which management technique had the greatest effect on water quality.

Bayley, P.B. 1991 The flood pulse advantage and restoration of river-floodplain systems.
Regulated Rivers: Research and Management 6:75-86
The “flood pulse advantage” is the amount by which fish yield per unit mean water area is increased by a natural, predictable flood pulse. Evidence for this increase is presented from tropical and temperate fisheries. It is argued that increasing multispecies fish yields by restoring the natural hydrological regime is consistent with increasing production of other trophic levels and with restoration from ecological and aesthetic viewpoints. When applied to a river-floodplain system, this restoration would provide a large, self-sustaining potential for recreation, commercial exploitation and flood control.. An interim “natural flood pulse” restoration approach is proposed for systems modified for navigation. This approach approximates the natural hydrological regime in a river reach and is intended as a first step in the long process of restoring the watershed.


“Restoration Techniques for Great Lake’s Wetlands
Douglas Wilcox, U.S. Geological Survey- Great Lakes Science Center, Ann Arbor, Michigan
…… Successful restoration techniques that do not require continued manipulation must be founded in the basic tenets of ecology and should mimic natural processes. Success is demonstrated by the sustainability, productivity nutrient-retention ability, invisibility, and biotic interactions within a restored wetland.

The Great Lakes Water Wars by Peter Tannin
p.41 Tourists find these widely varying lake levels to be alarming—
something must be wrong, they assume. Nothing could be further from the truth. Vacillating lake levels are what experts refer to as “natural variability”, and that variability plays a key role in the complex Great Lakes’ ecosystem. “Natural variability is an absolute necessity,” says Douglas Wilcox, a wetland expert with the U.S. Geological Survey” Great Lakes Science Center in Ann Arbor, Michigan. “ The [Great Lakes} plant and animal communities are not only adapted to that variability, but they absolutely require that variability to provide habitat and food, and nesting/spawning [areas] to maintain their populations.
The interface between land and water is a rich and ecologically productive venue, and different creatures benefit at different water level stages. During low water, long beaches and broad expanses of mudflats are created at the lake’ edges. These flats are actually seed banks that have been harboring the progeny of rare water-level dependent plants for decades. When the waters recede, these areas are exposed to the air and the unique plants embark on a robust growth binge, creating all sorts of food, cover, and other habitat for a variety of important wetland species. In essence, these beaches and mudflats imitate a desert after a cloudburst.-they bloom. That is precisely what happened in 2000, when lake levels dropped after a long period of high water. “It was incredible . It was just absolutely incredible,.” Says Dr. Wilcox. “These sediments were exposed and just came back like gangbusters [with] the most diverse vegetation you can imagine.” This is a cycle that has repeated itself for thousands of years in the Great Lakes Basin.
The extent of these lake-level fluctuations is impressive. It’s not unusual for water levels in the Great Lakes the change by more than a foot from one year to the next.. And the difference between the historic high and low water levels on some Great Lakes is more than 6 vertical feet.


Auer, N.A.1994. Effects of change in operation of a small hydro facility on spawning characteristics of lake sturgeon. LAKE and RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT 9(2): 52-53

Lyons, J. 1989. Changes in the abundance of small littoral-zone fishes in Lake Mendota, Wisconsin. Can. J. Zool. 67:2910-2916.


Bonde, T.J.H. and C.A. Elsey. 1964. A fisheries survey of Namakan Lake, 1962-1963. Minnesota Department of Conservation, Division of Game and Fish, Section of (3) Research and Planning, Investigational Report 282. 27 pp.


Cohen and Radomski, Water Level Regulation and Fisheries in Rainy Lake an the Namakan Reservoir, Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science Vol. 50 1993 p. 1934-1944

Gaboury, M.N. and J.W. Patalas. 1984. Influence of water level drawdown on the fish populations of Cross Lake, Manitoba. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 41: 118-125.

Kallemeyn, L.W. 1987a. Correlations of regulated lake levels and climatic factors with abundance of young-of-the-year walleye and yellow perch in four lakes in (17) Voyageurs National Park. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 7: 513-521.

Kallemeyn, L.W. 1987b. Effects of regulated lake levels on northern pike spawning habitat and reproductive success in Namakan Reservoir, Voyageurs National (18) Park. U.S. Department of the
Interior, National Park Service, Research/Resources Management Report MWR-8. Omaha, Nebraska. 15 pp.

Review of Proposed Changes in Water Level Regulation for Rainy and Namakan Lakes: Their Consequent Ecological Effects on Fisheries and Related Aquatic Resources, Kitchell, Koshinsky July 31, 1996

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Machniak, K. 1975b. The effects of hydroelectric development on the biology of northern fishes (reproduction and population dynamics) II. Northern pike (Esox lucius (Linnaeus)). A literature review and bibliography. Fisheries and Marine Service Resource Development Report 528. 82 pp.


McCarraher, D.B. and R.E. Thomas. 1972. Ecological significance of vegetation to northern pike, (Esox lucius L.) spawning. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 101: 560- 563.

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Tikkanen P, Niva T, Yrj?§n?§ T, Kuusela K, Hellsten S, Kantola L & Alasaarela E (1988) Effects of regulation on the ecology of the littoral zone and the feeding of whitefish, Coregonus spp., in lakes in Northern Finland. Finnish Fisheries Research 9: 457-465.

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*Varrelman, S. K. and C. N. Spencer. 1991. Preliminary investigation of effects of water-level regulation on nearshore benthic invertebrates of Flathead Lake compared to Lake McDonald, northwest Montana. Proceedings of Montana Academy of Sciences 51:85-102.

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Farney, R.A and Bookhout. 1982. Vegetation changes in a Lake Erie marsh (Winous Point, Ottawa County, Ohio) during high water years. Ohio Acad. Sci. 82:103-107.

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Engel, S. 1988. The role and interactions of submersed macrophytes in a shallow Wisconsin lake. Journal of Freshwater Ecology 4: 329 341.

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Hellsten, S. and Riihimaki, J. 1996 Effects of Lake Level Regulation on the dynamics of littoral vegetation in northern Finland Hydrobiologia 340(1-3): 85-92

Hill, N.M., Keddy, P.A. & Wisheu, I.C. (1998) A Hydrological Model for Predicting the Effects of Dams on the Shoreline Vegetation of Lakes and Reservoirs. Environmental Management 22(5):723-736.

Keddy, P.A. and A.A. Reznicek. 1986. Great Lakes vegetation dynamics: the role of fluctuating water levels and buried seeds. Journal of Great Lakes Research 12: 25-36.

Lieffers, V.J. and J.M. Shay. 1981. The effects of water level on the growth and reproduction of Scirpus maritimus var. paludosus. Canadian Journal of Botany 59: 118-121.

Meeker, J.E. and D.A. Wilcox. 1989. A comparison of aquatic macrophyte communities in regulated and non-regulated lakes, Voyageurs National Park and Boundary Waters (22) Canoe Area,
Minnesota. U. S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Research/Resources Management Report MWR-16. Midwest Regional Office, Omaha, Nebraska. 39 pp.

Monson, P.H. 1986. An analysis of the effects of fluctuating water levels on littoral zone macrophytes in he Namakan Reservoir/Rainy Lake system Voyageurs National (16) Park, and the flora of Voyageurs National Park. Final Report U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Contract CX-6000-2-0039. iv + 95 pp.

Nichols, S.A. 1975. The impact of overwinter drawdown on the aquatic vegetation of the Chippewa Flowage, Wisconsin. Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters 63: 176-186.

Nilsson, C. and P.A. Keddy. 1988. Predictability of change in shoreline vegetation along a hydroelectric reservoir, northern Sweden. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 45: 1896-1904.

Quennerstedt, N.1958. Effect of water level fluctuation on lake vegetation. Verh Internat Ver L 13:901-906.

Renman, G. 1993. Frost formation in the ecotonal zone and its role for release of nutrients. Hydrobiology 251:65-72.

Renman, G. 1989. Distribution of littoral macrophytes in a north Swedish riverside lagoon in relation to bottom freezing. Aquatic Botany 33: 243-256.

Robel, R.J. 1962. Changes in submersed vegetation following a change in water level. Journal of Wildlife Management 26: 221-224.

Rorslett, B. 1984. Environmental factors and aquatic macrophyte response in regulated lakes - a statistical approach. Aquatic Botany 19: 199-220.

Sjberg, K. and Danell, K. 1983. Effects of permanent flooding on Carex-Equisetum wetlands in northern Sweden. Aquatic Botany 15:275-286.

Wallsten, M. and Forsgren, P.O. 1989 The effects of increased water level on aquatic macrophytes. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management 27:32,Äî37.

Wilcox, D.A. and J.E. Meeker. 1991. Disturbance effects on aquatic vegetation in regulated and unregulated lakes in northern Minnesota. Canadian Journal of Botany (25) 69: 1542-1551.

Bibliography on the Impact of Lake Level Regulation on Shoreline Equilibrium and Erosion

Creel Monograph 85-1, Erosion of Northern Reservoir Shores, an Analysis and Application of Pertinent Literature., US Army Corps of Engineers, Cold Regions Research and
Engineering Laboratory.

Hands, E. 1980. Prediction of Shore Retreat and Nearshore Profile Adjustments to Rising Water Levels on the Great Lakes, Technical Paper No. 80-7 October 1980, U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Facility.

Hands, E. 1979. Changes in Rates of Shore Retreat, Lake Michigan, 1967-76, Technical Paper 79, 4 December 1979, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Coastal Engineering Research Center.

Lorang, M. and Stanford, J. 1993.Variability of Shoreline Erosion and Accretion within a Beach Compartment of Flathead Lake Montana, Limnol. Oceonogr 38 (8) 1993, pp. 1783-1795.

Lorang, Stanford, Hauer, and Jourdannais. 1993. Dissipative and Reflective Beaches in a Large Lake and the Physical Effects of Lake Level Regulation, Ocean and Coastal Management 19 (1993)
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Schwartz, M. The Bruun Theory of Sea Level Rise As a Cause of Shore Erosion, Journal of Coastal Geology, vol 75 pps. 76-92.

Lorang, M. S., P. D. Komar and J. A. Stanford. 1993. Lake level regulation and shoreline erosion on Flathead Lake, Montana: A response to the redistribution of annual wave energy. Journal of Coastal Research
9(2):494-508.

Pincus, H.J. ed. 1962. Symposium on the Great Lakes Basin Publication No. 71, 1962. American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Parkin and Lortie. 1989. Lake Beaches in Maine`s Organized Towns, A report prepared for the Maine Critical Areas Program, State Planning Office, 184 State Street, Augusta, Maine 04333.
Planning Report No. 88, April 1989.

Johnston and Mixon. 1998. Beach Dynamics of Sebago Lake, A report on the results of beach profiling, Maine Geological Survey, open-file 98-122, 1998.

Lake Winnipeg, Churchill and Nelson Rivers Study Board, Lake Winnipeg Shoreline Erosion, Sand Movement, and Ice Effects Study, Water Resources Branch, Dept. of Mines, Resources and
Environmental Management Province of Manitoba, July 1974.

Wheeler, R. 1994. The Great Basin Dam War. Friends of Sebago Lake. Casco, Maine.

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission. 1997. FERC FEIS-0106-F. Final Environmental Impact Statement, Eel Weir Hydroelectric Project FERC No. 2984-025. Sebago Lake, Maine , Jan. 1997.

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission. 1996. FERC-EIS-0093F, Final Environmental Impact Statement for Proposed Modifications for the Kerr Hydroelectric Project, Montana FERC Project no.
5-021, July 1996.

Seibel. 1972. Shore Erosion At Selected Sites Along Lake Michigan and Lake Huron, Dissertation Oceanogaphy, University of Michigan 1972.

Carter, C. 1976. Lake Erie Shore Erosion, Lake County, Ohio, Setting, Processes, and Recession Rates from 1876 to 1973, State of Ohio, Dept. of Natural Resources, Division of Geologic Survey, Report of Investigations No. 99, 1976.

Birkemeier, W.A. 1981. Coastal Changes, Eastern Lake Michigan, 1970-1974, MR 81-2 Jan. 1981. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center.

Mark AF & Kirk RM (1987) Lake levels and lakeshore erosion. In:Vant, W.N. (ed) Lake Managers Handbook. Water & Soil Miscellaneous publication No 103: 215-22 Hamilton. 230 p

Bibliography of Studies Relating to Ecological Effects of Water Level Regulation in Large Lakes

Kallemyne, Cohen, and Radomski. 1993. Rehabilitating the Aquatic Ecosystem of Rainy Lake and Namakan Reservoir by Restoration of a More Natural Hydrologic Regime- Proceedings of the
Symposium on Restration Planning for the Rivers of the Mississippi River Ecosystem, Biological Report 19, October 1993.

Our Living Resources, A Report to the Nation on the Distribution, Abundance and Health of U.S. Plants, Animals and Ecosystems , U.S. Dept of the Interior 1995 p. 249 (re: Lake Ontario).

Stanford and Hauer, Mitigating the Impacts of Stream and Lake Regulation in the Flathead River Catchment, Montana, USA: An Ecosystem Perspective, Flathead Lake Biological Station, University of Montana, Polson, Montana.

Hill, N.M. Keddy, P.A. and Wisheu, I.C. 1998. A hydrological model for predicting the effects of dams on the shoreline vegetation of lakes and reservoirs. Environmental Management 22(5): 723-736

Our Living Resources, A report to the nation on the Distribution, Abundance and Health of U.S. Plants, Animals and ecosystems, U.S. Dept of the Interior 1995 p. 249 (re: Lake Ontario)

*Stanford, J. A. and J. V. Ward. 1992. Management of aquatic resources in large catchments: recognizing interactions between ecosystem connectivity and environmental disturbance, pp. 91-124. IN: Naiman, R. J. (ed.),Watershed Management: Balancing Sustainability and Environmental Change. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY. 542 pp.

Bibliography of Lake Ecosystems

McLachlan, A.; Erasmus, T.1983. Sandy beaches as ecosystems. Developments in Hydrobiology. Junk: The Hague, Netherlands. 757 pp.

Pugh, K.B. 1983. Nutrient cycling in sandy beaches. Pp 225-233 in Mc Lachlan, A.; Erasmus, T. (Ed.): Sandy beaches as ecosystems. Developments in Hydrobiology, 19. Junk: The Hague, Netherlands

LaBaugh, J.W. 1986. Wetland ecosystem studies from a hydrologic
perspective. Water Resource. Bull. 22(1):1-10.

Merezhko, A.I. 1973. Role of higher aquatic plants in the self-purification of lakes and streams. Hydrobiol. J. 9:103-109.

Munkittrick, K.R. and D.G. Dixon. 1989. A holistic approach to ecosystem health assessment using fish population characteristics. Hydrobiologia 188/189:123-135.

Woltemand, C.J(1997) Water level management opportunities for ecological benefit, Pool 5 Mississippi River, Journal of the American Water Resources Association 33(2) : 443-454

Lubinski, K.S., Carmody, G., Wilcox, D., & Drazkowski, B. 1993. Development of Water Level Regulation Strategies for Fish and Wildlife, Upper Mississippi River System, Environmental Management Technical Center, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

*Stanford and Hauer, Mitigating the Impacts of Stream and Lake Regulation in the Flathead River Catchment, Montana, USA: An Ecosystem Perspective, Flathead Lake Biological Station, University of Montana, Polson , Montana.

Kallemyne, Cohen, and Radomski. Rehabilitating the Aquatic Ecosystem of Rainy Lake and Namakan Reservoir by Restoration of a More Natural Hydrologic Regime- Proceedings of the Symposium on Restoration Planning for the Rivers of the Mississippi River ecosystem. Biological Report 19 October 1993

Ellis, M. M. 1936. Erosion silt as a factor in aquatic environments. Ecology 17:29-42.

Wilcox, D.A 1995. The Role of Wetlands as nearshore habitat in Lake Huron. in The Lake Huron ecosystem: fisheries, ecology and management. Munawar, M., Edsall, T.,Leach, J., (eds.), Ecovision World Monograph Series, SPB Academic Publishing, Amsterdam, pp. 223-245

Morin, J., 1998. From pristine to present state: hydrology evolution of Lake Saint-Francois, St. Lawrence River. Can. J Civ. 25: 864-879.

Bibliography of Lacustrine Wetland Impacts from Unnatural Lake Water level Regulation

Medford, B.L. and E.M. Preston. 1988. Evaluating Cumulative Effects on Wetland Functions: a Conceptual Overview and Generic Framework. Environmental Management. Vol. 12, No. 5, pp. 565-583.

The Adverse Consequences of Fluctuating Water Levels in the Great Lakes- St. Lawrence River Basin: A Report to the Governments of Canada and the United States.

Keddy, P. 1995. Principles of Wetland Restoration. presented at Temperate Wetland Restoration Workshop, Nov. 27-Dec. 1, 1995, Barrie, Ontario. Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Great Lakes Branch, Peterborough, Ontario.

The effects of prolonged water level stabilization on Delta Marsh, Manitoba, Canada: Changes in emergent plant communities and associated loss of shallow ponds Dale A. Wrubleski and Richard E. Grosshans. Ducks Unlimited, Canada. L. Gordon Goldsborough University of Manitoba, Canada

Almazan, G. and C.E. Boyd. 1978. Effects of nitrogen levels on rates of oxygen consumption during decay of aquatic plants. Aquat. Bot. 5:119-126.

Nelson, J.W. and E.C. Weller. 1984. A better rationale for wetland
management. Environ. Manage. 8(4):295-308.

Patterson, N.J. and T.H. Whillans. 1984. Human interference with natural water level regimes in the context of other cultural stresses on Great Lakes wetlands. pp. 209-239 in: Prince, H.H., and F.M. D'Itri (eds.). Coastal Wetlands.

McCullough, G.B. 1981. Wetland Losses in Lakes St. Clair and Lake Ontario. Proceedings of the Ontario Wetlands Conference (A. Champagne, ed.). Federation of Ontario Naturalists and Ryerson Polytechnical Institute, Toronto, Ontario. pp. 81-89.

Slivitzky, M. 2001. A literature review on Cumulative Impacts of Water Use and Changes in Levels and Flows. The Great Lakes Commission.

Spencer, C. N., N. R. Kevern and T. M. Burton. 1985. The role of wetlands in nutrient cycling in the Great Lakes Region, pp. 177-201. IN: Copeland, B. J. (ed.). Research for Managing the Nation's Estuaries. University of North Carolina Sea Grant Publication 8408.

Wilcox, D. A. 1993. Effects of water level regulation on wetlands of the Great Lakes. Great Lakes Wetlands 4, 1-2,11.

Wilcox, D. A. 1995. The role of wetlands as nearshore habitat in Lake Huron. In: Munawar, M., Edsall, T., Leach, J. (eds.), The Lake Huron Ecosystem: Ecology, Fisheries and Management. pp. 223-245. SPB Academic Publishing, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

Wilcox, D. A., Apfelbaum, S. I., Hiebert, R. D. 1984. Cattail invasion of sedge meadows following hydrologic disturbance in the Cowles Bog Wetland Complex, Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore. Wetlands 4, 115-128.

Wilcox, D. A., Meeker, J. E. 1991. Disturbance effects on aquatic vegetation in regulated and unregulated lakes in northern Minnesota. Canadian Journal of Botany 69, 1542-1551.

Wilcox, D. A., Meeker, J. E. 1992. Implications for faunal habitat related to altered structure in regulated lakes in northern Minnesota. Wetlands 12, 192-203.

Wilcox, D. A., Meeker, J. E., Elias, J. 1993. Impacts of Water-level Regulation on Wetlands of the Great Lakes. Phase 2 Report to Working Committee 2, International Joint Commission, Great Lakes Water Levels Reference Study.

Wilcox, D. A., Meeker, J. E. (1995) Wetlands in regulated Great Lakes. In: LaRoe, E.T., Farris, G.S., Puckett, C.E., Doran, P.D., Mac, M.J. (eds.) Our Living Resources: A Report to the Nation on the Distribution, Abundance, and Health of U.S. Plants, Animals, and Ecosystems. pp. 247-249. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Biological Service, Washington, DC.

Impacts of Lake Level Regulation on Primary Production

Baines, S. B., and M. L. Pace. 1994. Relationships between suspended particulate matter and sinking flux along a trophic gradient and implications for the fate of planktonic primary production. Can J Fisheries Aquat Sci, 51(1): 25-36.

C.C. King and L.E. Elfner, eds. Organisms and biological communities as indicators of environmental quality. Circular 8. Ohio Biological Survey, Columbus, Ohio.

Perry, W. B. and J. A. Stanford. 1982. Algal growth stimulus by phosphorus in Flathead Lake (Montana) sediments. Northwest Science 56(a):48-52.

Renman, G. 1993. Frost formation in the ecotonal zone and its role for release of nutrients. Hydrobiology 251:65-72.

Hosseini, S.M. 1986. Effects of Water Level Fluctuations on Algal Communities of Freshwater Marshes. Available from University Microfilms International 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48106, order no. 8627119.

Basu, B.K., Kalff, J., Pinel-Alloul, B. 2000. The influence of macrophyte beds on plankton communities and their export from fluvial lakes in the St. Lawrence River. Freshwater Biology. 45(4): 373-382

Kepner, R. and R. Stottlemyer. 1988. Physical and chemical factors affecting primary production in the Voyageurs National Park lake system. Great Lakes Area (19) Resource Studies Unit Technical Report No. 29, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Michigan. 80 pp + appendices.

Spencer, C. N. and B. K. Ellis. 1998. Role of nutrients and zooplankton in regulation of phytoplankton in Flathead Lake (Montana, USA), a large oligotrophic lake. Freshwater Biology 39(4):755-763.

Sebago Lake Bibliography


Johnston, Robert A. 1998. Glacial marine and glacial lacustrine sedimentation in Sebago Lake, Maine: a geophysical survey: Unpub. M.S. Thesis, Dept.Geological Sciences, Univ. Maine, Orono, Maine.


Pacific Northwest Environmental Research Laboratory, Report on Bay of Naples and Sebago Lake, Cumberland County, Maine: Environmental Protection Agency National Eutrophication Survey, working paper no. 5, 49 pages.




High concentrations of viruses in the sediments of Lac Gilbert, Québec
Journal Microbial Ecology
Publisher Springer New York
ISSN 0095-3628 (Print) 1432-184X (Online)
Issue Volume 31, Number 2 / March, 1996
DOI 10.1007/BF00167860
Pages 141-151
Subject Collection Biomedical and Life Sciences
SpringerLink Date Monday, November 29, 2004
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High concentrations of viruses in the sediments of Lac Gilbert, Québec
R. Maranger1 and D. F. Bird1
(1) Département des Sciences Biologiques, Université du Québec à Montréal, succ. Centre-Ville, C.P. 8888 Montréal, Québec, H3C 3P8, Canada
Abstract Viruses were found to be very abundant in the top layer of the sediments of Lac Gilbert, Québec. Viruses were extracted from the sediments using pyrophosphate buffer, and viruses from the diluted extracts were pelleted onto grids and enumerated using transmission electron microscopy. Viral abundance in the sediments ranged from 6.5 × 108 to 1.83 × 1010 ml–1, which is 10- to 1,000-fold greater than the number observed in the water column. This increase corresponds well with the 100- to 1,000-fold increase in bacterial abundance in the sediments. Viral abundance differed significantly among the surface sediment samples taken at different bottom depths and among samples taken at different depths of the water column. Viral abundance also varied significantly between the oxic and anoxic zones of the water column and the sediments. The virus-to-bacteria ratio varied greatly among the different sediment sites but not among depths in the water column. Viral abundance in the water column was related to bacterial abundance and chlorophyll concentration, whereas viruses in the sediments were most abundant in sediments with high organic matter content. Elevated viral abundance and their erratic distribution in the sediments suggest that viruses might play an important role in sediment microbial dynamics.
Correspondence to: Roxane Maranger











Environmental Impacts of Fluctuating Water levels in lakes with particular reference to potential impacts in Sebago Lake. Maine,May 1994 R-13817.00. Prepared by Normandeau Associates Inc., Bedford, New Hampshire. Prepared for Portland Water District, Portland , Maine.
Compiled by Roger Wheeler, Friends of Sebago Lake, November, 2002.



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High Water Levels Destroying Protected Wetlands
Common Council Will Vote On DNR Request Tuesday

UPDATED: 9:50 pm CDT August 5, 2008

MADISON, Wis. -- Madison's protected Cherokee Marsh is under attack from high water.

VIDEO: Watch The Report

Some local environmental experts said on Monday that rising water in the marsh is slowly killing off portions of the precious wetlands.

"You have to go out and see it," said Madison Parks Commission president Bill Barker. "You have to see the big chunks of wetlands tearing away and floating away."

"These wetlands did not evolve to be floating," said conservation resource supervisor Russ Hefty. "They're only floating because the dam or series of dams at Tenney Park back the water up into the Yahara River. These wetlands that were growing on peat, and instead of being inundated and lost immediately, floated up. Ever since that happened, they've been steadily eroding away."

Hefty said additional runoff from more development has also added to the water level, and recent heavy rains only add to the problem.

"I dread going out to look after it pops up two to two and a half feet above what it's supposed to be because I know what I'm going to see," said Hefty.

On Monday, Hefty took a boat tour of the marsh and showed a WISC-TV news crew large sections of sedge meadow drifting on the water.

"They will die off because of such small size," said Hefty. "Between the wind action and the ice action, things will get whittled away, so it's kind of like a slow death."

Hefty said at least 7 feet of marsh shoreline disappears every year. He said a least a full square mile of it has gone since the first dam was put on Lake Mendota in the mid-1800s.

"It accelerates as it gets wider and the waves get bigger," said Hefty. "It's a downward cycle."

"Ultimately, we're losing habitat that does support a wide variety of birds and other wildlife," said Hefty.

Some experts would like to see the lake level lowered on Lake Mendota, which in turn would lower the level in Cherokee Marsh, WISC-TV reported.

"Anything we can do to lower the summertime levels will enhance the growth of the plants," said Hefty. "And it will also reduce the loss when we have flood events because if you start at a lower elevation you have more storage so it won't rise up as high."

Those wetland plants also serve another purpose. They hold back silt that would otherwise wash in to Lake Mendota.

"Any silt that we can catch up in this part of the watershed, as opposed to having it travel freely to Lake Mendota has certainly got to have some sort of positive impact on the ultimate water quality," he said.

City officials will soon have the opportunity to weigh on the issue. On Tuesday night, the Madison Common Council will vote on a resolution that will, among other things, put a formal request in to the state Department of Natural Resources to review the lake level policy, something that hasn't been done since 1979.

"We can't just let this go on," said Barker. "If the high water levels of the lake are eroding and increasing the width of the upper Yahara River channel by 7 feet a year -- that's tens of acres of high quality marshland lost every year."

Hefty and Barker said that they hope this is the year for change. They said many of the groups that have an interest on the lakes have been impacted by the high water this year.

"You've got lakeshore property owners who aren't pleased about flooding or damage to their shorelines and having to rip out piers before they float away," said Hefty. "You've got boaters who've been denied a lot of recreation because of no wake orders."

Hefty said the key to making change is having everyone on the same page.

"This could be a real historic opportunity to really have the kind of discussion that maybe wasn't occurring in the past," said Hefty.

DNR officials said reviewing the lake level policy could take a year or longer.

A request to raise the level of Lake Koshkonong in the 1980s is still being hashed out in court because of opposing sides, WISC-TV reported.
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Great Lakes Wetland Studies of Impacts of Unnatural Regulation
Dr. Douglas Wilcox Studies:

Hendrickson, W. H. and D. A. Wilcox. 1979. Relationship between some physical properties and the vegetation found in Cowles Bog National Natural Landmark, Indiana. Proceedings of the Second Conference on Scientific Research in the National Parks 5:642-666.

Wilcox, D. A. and S. W. Effler. 1981. Formation of alewife concretions in polluted Onondaga Lake. Environmental Pollution Series B 2:203-215..

Wilcox, D. A., S. I. Apfelbaum, and R. D. Hiebert. 1984. Cattail invasion of sedge meadows following hydrologic disturbance in the Cowles Bog Wetland Complex, Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore. Wetlands 4:115-128.

Wilcox, D. A., R. J. Shedlock, and W. H. Hendrickson. 1986. Hydrology, water chemistry, and ecological relations in the raised mound of Cowles Bog. Journal of Ecology 74:1103-1117.

Wilcox, D. A. 1987. A model for assessing interdisciplinary approaches to wetland research. Wetlands 7:39-50.

Wilcox, D. A. (ed.). 1988. Interdisciplinary Approaches to Freshwater Wetlands Research. Michigan State University Press, East Lansing, MI, USA.

Wilcox, D. A. 1988. The necessity of interdisciplinary research in wetland ecology: the Cowles Bog example. p. 1-9. In D. Wilcox (ed.) Interdisciplinary Approaches to Freshwater Wetlands Research. Michigan State University Press, East Lansing, MI, USA.

Meeker, J. E. and D. A. Wilcox. 1989. A Comparison of Aquatic Macrophyte Communities in Regulated and Non-regulated Lakes, Voyageurs National Park and Boundary Waters Canoe Area, Minnesota. NPS Research/Resources Management Report MWR-16.

Wilcox, D. A. 1989. Responses of selected Great Lakes wetlands to water-level fluctuations. Phase 1 Report to Working Committee 2, IJC Water-Levels Reference Study. International Joint Commission, Ottawa, ON, Canada and Washington, DC, USA.



Wilcox, D. A. 1990. Water-level fluctuations and Great Lakes wetlands. Great Lakes Wetlands 1(2):1-3.

Wilcox, D. A. and J. E. Meeker. 1991. Disturbance effects on aquatic vegetation in regulated and unregulated lakes in northern Minnesota. Canadian Journal of Botany 69:1542-1551.

Wilcox, D. A. and J. E. Meeker. l992. Implications for faunal habitat related to altered macrophyte structure in regulated lakes in northern Minnesota. Wetlands 12:192-203.

Wilcox, D. A., J. E. Meeker, and J. Elias. 1992. Impacts of water-level regulation on wetlands of the Great Lakes. Phase 2 Report to Working Committee 2, IJC Water-Levels Reference Study. International Joint Commission, Ottawa, ON, Canada and Washington, DC, USA.

Shedlock, R. J., D. A. Wilcox, T. A. Thompson, and D. A. Cohen. 1993. Interactions between ground water and wetlands, southern shore of Lake Michigan, USA. Journal of Hydrology 141:127-155.

Wilcox, D. A. 1993. Effects of water-level regulation on wetlands of the Great Lakes. Great Lakes Wetlands 4(1):1-2.

Wilcox, D. A., J. E. Meeker, and J. Elias. 1993. Appendix: Impacts of water-level regulation on wetlands of the Great Lakes--additional scenarios. Phase 2 Report to Working Committee 2, IJC Water-Levels Reference Study. International Joint Commission, Ottawa, ON, Canada and Washington, DC, USA.

Wilcox, D. A. 1995. Wetland and aquatic macrophytes as indicators of anthropogenic hydrologic disturbance. Natural Areas Journal 15:240-248.

Wilcox, D. A. 1995. The role of wetlands as nearshore habitat in Lake Huron. p. 223-245. In M. Munawar, T. Edsall, J. Leach (eds.) The Lake Huron Ecosystem: Ecology, Fisheries, and Management. Ecovision World Monograph Series, S.P.B. Academic Publishing, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

Wilcox, D. A. and J. E. Meeker. 1995. Wetlands in regulated Great Lakes. p. 247-249. In E. T. LaRoe, G. S. Farris, C. E. Puckett, P. D. Doran, and M. J. Mac (eds.). Our Living Resources: a Report to the Nation on the Distribution, Abundance, and Health of U.S. Plants, Animals, and Ecosystems. U.S. DOI, National Biological Service, Washington, DC, USA.

Singer, D. K., S. T. Jackson, B. J. Madsen, and D. A. Wilcox. 1996. Differentiating climatic and successional influences on long-term development of a marsh. Ecology 77:1765-1778.

Wilcox, D. A. 1996. Wetlands. Encarta 97 (CD-ROM encyclopedia). Microsoft Corportation, Redmond, WA, USA.

Wilcox, D. A. and J. R. P. French. 1996. Lake St. Clair Elodea seasonal growth study. Report to U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Detroit, MI, USA and Michigan Department of Natural Resources, Lansing, MI, USA.

Maynard, L. and D. A. Wilcox. 1997. Coastal Wetlands. State of the Lakes Ecosystem Conference Proceedings. Environment Canada, Burlington, ON, Canada and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Chicago, IL, USA.

Wilcox, D. A. 1998. Great Lakes marshes. p. 35-37. In S. Sanzone and A. McElroy (eds.) Ecological Impacts and Evaluation Criteria for the Use of Structures in Marsh Management. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Science Advisory Board, Washington, DC, USA. EPA-SAB-EPEC-98-003.

Keough, J. R, T. A. Thompson, G. R. Guntenspergen, and D. A. Wilcox. 1999. Hydrogeomorphic factors and ecosystem responses in coastal wetlands of the Great Lakes. Wetlands 19:821-834.

Kowalski, K. P. and D. A. Wilcox. 1999. Use of historical and geospatial data to guide the restoration of a Lake Erie coastal marsh. Wetlands 19:858-868.

Wilcox, D. A., J. E. Meeker, P. L. Hudson, B. J. Armitage, M. G. Black, and D. G. Uzarski. 1999. Development of evaluation criteria to assess and protect the biological integrity of Great Lakes wetlands. Project Completion Report to U.S. EPA, Duluth, MN, USA. IAG DW14936071-01-0.

Wilcox, D. A. and T. H. Whillans. 1999. Techniques for restoration of disturbed coastal wetlands of the Great Lakes. Wetlands 19:835-857.

Armitage, B. J., P. L. Hudson, and D. A. Wilcox. 2000. Caddisflies (Insecta: Trichoptera) of fringing wetlands of the Laurentian Great Lakes. Verhandliungen-Internationale Vereinigung fur Theoretische und Angewandte Limnologie 27:1-5.

Environment Canada (D. A. Wilcox, N. Patterson, T. A. Thompson, D. Albert, R. Weeber, J. McCracken, T. Whillans, and J. Gannon, contributors). 2002. Where Land Meets Water: Understanding Wetlands of the Great Lakes. Environment Canada, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. 72pp.

Kowalski, K. P. and D. A. Wilcox. 2002. Alternative management strategies for diked marshes: summary results from 1994-2001 studies of Metzger Marsh plant communities. Report to U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Ohio Division of Wildlife.

Wilcox, D. A., K. P. Kowalski, and H. Roten. 2002. Relationships between Lake Ontario water levels and wetlands. Year 1 report to International Joint Commission.

Wilcox, D. A. and E. Krygier, Jr. 2002. Private beach or emerging wetland? The controversy over grooming beaches exposed by low water. Great Lakes Advisor Sept./Oct.:8-9.

Wilcox, D. A., J. E. Meeker, P. L. Hudson, B. J. Armitage, M. G. Black, and D. G. Uzarski. 2002. Hydrologic variability and the application of index of biotic integrity metrics to wetlands: a Great Lakes evaluation. Wetlands 22:588-615.

Hunt, R. J. and D. A. Wilcox. 2003. Ecohydrology -- why hydrologists should care. Groundwater 41:289.

Kowalski, K. P. and D. A. Wilcox. 2003. Differences in sedge fen vegetation upstream and downstream from a managed impoundment. American Midland Naturalist 150:199-220.

Kowalski, K. P. and D. A. Wilcox. 2003. Alternative management strategies for diked marshes. Report to U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Ottawa National Wildlife Refuge, Oak Harbor, OH.

Nichols, S. J. and D. A. Wilcox. 2003. Reestablishing the freshwater unionid population of Metzger Marsh, Lake Erie. Report to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency-Great Lakes National Program Office, Chicago, IL, USA. IAG No. 14947830-01.

Wilcox, D. A. 2003. Wetlands and water-level regulation in Lake Ontario and the upper St. Lawrence River. Clearwaters 33(3):16-17.

Wilcox, D. A. 2003. A coordinated approach to investigate the relationships between Lake Ontario water levels and wetlands. Ripple Effects 3:6-7.

Wilcox, D. A., K. P. Kowalski, H. Roten, and M. L. Carlson. 2003. Relationships between Lake Ontario water levels and wetlands. Year 2 report to International Joint Commission.

Charles, C. et al. 2004. Wetland Ecology 5-Yr Science Plan. Terrestrial, Freshwater, and Marine Ecosystems Program, USGS Biological Resources Discipline, Reston, VA.

Nichols, S. J. and D. A. Wilcox. 2004. Native clams find refuge from zebra mussels in Metzger Marsh, a lake-connected wetland in western Lake Erie. Ecological Restoration 22:51-52.

Wilcox, D. A. 2004. Implications of hydrologic variability on the succession of plants in Great Lakes wetlands. Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 7:223-232.

Wilcox, D. A. 2004. From the Bog: a compilation of favorites. SWS Bulletin 21(2):23-27.

Wilcox, D. A., K. P. Kowalski, and M. L. Carlson. 2004. Relationships between Lake Ontario water levels and wetlands. Year 3 report to International Joint Commission.

Booth, R. K., S. C. Hotchkiss, and D. A. Wilcox. 2005. Discoloration of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) tape as a proxy for water-table depth in peatlands: validation and assessment of seasonal variability. Functional Ecology 19:1040-1047.


Burkett, V. R., D. A. Wilcox, R. Stottlemyer, W. Barrow, D. B. Fagre, J. Baron, J. Price, J. L. Nielson, C. Allen, D. L. Peterson, G. Ruggerone, and T. Doyle. 2005. Nonlinear dynamics in ecosystem response to climatic change: case studies and management implications. Ecological Complexity 2:357-394.

Wilcox, D. A. 2005. Lake Michigan wetlands: classification, concerns, and management opportunities. p. 421-437. In T. Edsall, M. Munawar (eds.) The State of Lake Michigan: Ecology, Health, and Management. Ecovision World Monograph Series, S.P.B. Academic Publishing, The Netherlands.

Wilcox, D. A., J. W. Ingram, K. P. Kowalski, J. E. Meeker, M. L. Carlson, Y. Xie, G. P. Grabas, K. L. Holmes, and N. J. Patterson. 2005. Evaluation of Water-Level Regulation Influences on Lake Ontario and Upper St. Lawrence River Coastal Wetland Plant Communities. Report to the International Joint Commission.

Wilcox, D. A., M. J. Sweat, M. L. Carlson, and K. P. Kowalski. 2005. A water-budget approach to restoring a sedge fen affected by diking and ditching. Journal of Hydrology 320:501-517.

Hudon, C., D. A. Wilcox, and J. W. Ingram. 2006. Modeling wetland plant community response to assess water-level regulation scenarios in the Lake Ontario-St. Lawrence River basin. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 113:303-328.

Kowalski, K. P., D. A. Wilcox, and M. J. Wiley. 2006. Final report: Coastal wetland habitat restoration and exploration. Report to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Great Lakes National Program Office.

Wilcox, D. A., T. A. Thompson, R. K. Booth, and J. R. Nicholas. 2007. Lake-level variability and water availability in the Great Lakes. U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1311.

Wilcox, D. A. and Y. Xie. 2007. Predicting wetland plant responses to proposed water-level-regulation plans for Lake Ontario: GIS-based modeling. Journal of Great Lakes Research 33:751-773.

Euliss, N. H., Jr., L. M. Smith, D. A. Wilcox, and B. A. Browne. 2008. Linking ecological processes with wetland management goals for conservation: charting a course for sustainable development. Wetlands 28:(in press).

Smith, L. M., N. H. Euliss, Jr., D. A. Wilcox, and M. M. Brinson. 2008. Application of a geomorphic and temporal perspective to wetland management. Wetlands 28:(in press).

Wilcox, D. A. 2008. Education and training of wetland scientists and managers. Wetlands 28:(in press).

Wilcox, D. A. 2008. Wetlands, Fourth Edition. Book review of W.J. Mitsch and J.G.

Wilcox, D. A., K. P. Kowalski, H. Hoare, M. L. Carlson, and H. Morgan. 2008. Cattail invasion of sedge/grass meadows and regulation of Lake Ontario water levels: photointerpretation analysis of sixteen wetlands over five decades. Journal of Great Lakes Research 34:(in press).

Wilcox, D. A. and S. J. Nichols. 2008. The effects of water-level fluctuations on vegetation in a Lake Huron wetland. Wetlands 28:(in press).


Naturalization of the Flood Regime in Regulated Rivers
The case if the upper Mississippi river
Richard E. Sparks, John C.Nelson, and Yao Yin
BioScience Vol. 48 No.9 1998


The Clean Water Action Council of Northeast Wisconsin
September , 1997 Vol., 1, No.9
2. Wetland Losses

Lake levels have been raised as much as 3 feet on Lake Winnebago, to improve recreational opportunities for boaters and shoreline property owners on this shallow lake.

Unfortunately, the high water has submerged hundreds of acres of wetland marshes which once lined the lakeshore. This caused a dramatic drop in the ability of the lake system to filter nutrients out of the water. Because shoreline plants no longer use up phosphorus and nitrogen, the floating algae are happy to take their place.
4. Protect and Restore Wetlands

Wetlands filter nutrients out of water, therefore increased wetland plants growing along the shoreline would help reduce algae blooms.

One strategy used on some lakes is a temporary drawdown of water levels to allow the sediments to dry out, oxidize, and become compacted. This also allows wetland plants to regenerate. After one season, the water is allowed back and often dramatic water quality improvements are seen which persist for many years. The increased wetlands also support increased fish and waterfowl populations, so sporting opportunities increase.

The obvious drawback is the loss of one boating, swimming and fishing season --- a huge impact in an area the size of Lake Winnebago. The impacts on the Fox River would also have to be considered carefully.

In any case, wetlands which exist now along the lakeshore should be guarded as the treasures they are. If you’d like to help, please join us at our upcoming workshop described on page 7.

(Another state budget item involves a Republican amendment which would greatly reduce the acreage of restored wetlands which are currently required to offset wetlands destroyed for building highways. Another bad idea.)

Journal of the North American Benthological Society: Vol. 23, No. 1, pp. 50–68.

Relationships between environmental characteristics and macroinvertebrate communities in seasonal woodland ponds of Minnesota
Darold P. Batzer

Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602 USA
Brian J. Palik and Richard Buech

USDA Forest Service, North Central Research Station, 1831 East Highway 169, Grand Rapids, Minnesota 55744 USA

Abstract. We related macroinvertebrate communities and environmental variables in 66 small seasonal woodland ponds of northern Minnesota, USA. These wetlands were relatively pristine, being embedded in 50- to 100-y-old 2nd-growth forests. Macroinvertebrate taxon richness in ponds increased as hydroperiods lengthened, tree canopies opened, water pH declined, and litter input decreased. Eighteen macroinvertebrate taxa were widespread (occurred in >50% of ponds), and hydrology, water chemistry, geomorphology, vegetation, occurrence of other macroinvertebrate taxa, and presence of amphibian larvae each explained some variation in relative abundance of widespread macroinvertebrates. The first 4 axes of a canonical correspondence analysis explained 37% of total variation in relative abundance of widespread macroinvertebrate taxa. Overall, however, macroinvertebrates were remarkably unresponsive to environmental variables. Most relationships between macroinvertebrates and environmental variables were nonsignificant, and the few significant relationships observed were weak (<20% of variation). We suggest that this lack of response occurs because most macroinvertebrates in seasonal woodland ponds are habitat generalists. These species routinely endure pronounced and unpredictable environmental changes; hence, they possess a durability that makes them resistant to most natural variation in habitat conditions.

Key words: wetlands, invertebrates, hydroperiod, canopy cover.

Asplund, T.A. 1996.
Impacts of Motor Boats on Water Quality in Wisconsin Lakes.
Wisconsin Dept. of Natural Resources. PUB-RS-920 1996

Bachmann, R., D. Canfield, and M. Hoyer
Ecology and Management of Shallow Lakes Symposium, 134th Annual Meeting of The American Fisheries Society, August 22nd – 26th 2004
Where nutrient control is not the answer: Lake Apopka and Lake Okeechobee, Florida
Hundreds of millions of dollars have been spent on nutrient control as the dominant management strategy for two large, shallow, eutrophic lakes in Florida with little or no improvement in their water quality or fisheries. Starting in 1947 Lake Apopka switched from a macrophyte-dominated deepwater marsh with an outstanding largemouth bass fishery to a turbid, algae-dominated lake. The resuspension of a layer of flocculent sediments has prevented the reestablishment of the macrophyte habitat. A $100,000,000 program to reduce phosphorus inputs shows little sign of restoring the lake and its fishery. We propose an alternative to restore the largemouth bass fishery. The open waters of Lake Okeechobee, the largest shallow lake in the US, maintain a turbid state due to wave-driven sediment resuspension that results in no correlation between phosphorus concentrations and algal chlorophylls in the pelagic zone. A massive nutrient control program resulted in reductions in phosphorus inputs to the lake, yet phosphorus concentrations have increased rather than decreased. An experimental lowering of the water level in 2000 demonstrated that water level controls could rejuvenate macrophyte habitat important to the fisheries and seemed to be a more effective management technique for this lake than stringent phosphorus controls in the watershed.

Beklioglu , M.
THE 7th INTECOL INTERNATIONAL WETLANDS CONFERENCE IN UTRECHT, THE NETHERLANDS (JULY 25-30, 2004)
Role of water level fluctuation in Meditteranean shallow lakes: case Turkish shallow lakes.
Functioning of shallow lakes is expected to be very sensitive to water level fluctuation (WLF) which is an influential element of hydrology. Relationship between the WLFs and occurrence of alternative stable states were investigated in five Anatolian shallow lakes of Turkey, which are under the influence of semi-arid to arid Mediterranean climate. Four of the study lakes shifted to submerged plant dominated state whilst the water levels were lower than that of the long-term average. In these lakes, the low water level periods created a flatter bottom with an increased morphometry index (Zmean/Zmax). One of the study lakes shifted to submerged plant dominated state at significantly high water level occurring winter. Furthermore, the same lake had increased morphometry index and lake surface area by 20% at the high water level period. In all the study lakes, shift to the submerged plant dominated state coincided with a significant decrease in the amplitude of the intra-annual fluctuations. Moreover, in all the study lakes, vegetated state was characterized by the presence of significantly high density of waterfowl, especially coot (Fulica atra) and the low biomass of carp (Cyprinus carpio). With the recovery of the vegetation, the lakes supported internationally important number of waterfowls, hence, conservation value of the lakes boosted. Consequently, the lakes received different protection status including Ramsar site, A-class wetland and Important Bird Area. In conclusion, water level fluctuations may have a profound impact in affecting bottom profile through determining the extent of littoral zone and the subsequent ecological interactions.

Beklioglu, M. and C. Tan.
International Conference on Limnology of Shallow Lakes, Balatonfüred, Hungary 25-30 May 2002
The roles of water level fluctuations and nutrients in determining macrophyte dominated state of Turkish shallow lakes: Lake Mogan a case study
Lake Mogan is a large shallow lake (surface area: 550 ha, Zmax: 3.9 m; Zmean: 1.99 m).During the period of 1998–2001, the concentrations of total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-a increased significantly (87±014 and 18.1±2.1 mg l-1, respectively) compared to the concentrations recorded in 1997 (73±10 and 9±1.1 mg l-1,respectively). However, the Secchi depth transparency remained high that in turn may have maintained the high coverage of submerged plants. Even though there was sign of deteriorations, the submerged plants persisted that can be attributed to 38 cm drop in the mean water level. Lake Mogan previously also had a shift from turbid water to macrophyte dominated clear water 30 years ago through the implementation of the flood control which led to 47 cm drop in the mean water level and 4–7 folds decrease in the amplitude of the water level fluctuations. This shift took place regardless of any significant change in the concentrations of nutrients. The shift to the submerged plant dominated clear water state increased the conservation value of Lake Mogan that 180waterfowl species were recorded and were dominated by coot and diving duck. Consequently, the lake qualifies as an Important Bird Area (IBA). Beyºehir, Marmara and Uluabat Lakes also provided evidence for the structuring role of the water level draw down through which lakes shifted to exclusively submerged plant dominated clear water state. In these lakes, 0.5 to 2 m drop in the spring water level due to sporadic drought, and decrease in the amplitudes of the water level fluctuations appeared to be the main reason behind the shift since the sparse vegetation state was recorded at low availability of phosphorus. Through the shift to the submerged plant dominated state, ecological and conservation value of these lakes increased especially due to 10–15 folds increase in the waterfowl density that all the lakes qualify as IBAs and A class wetlands and Lake Uluabat has also been designated as a RAMSAR site since 1998. In sum, water level changes appear to play a structuring role in the ecology of Turkish shallow lakes.

Beklioglu, M.
International Conference on Limnology of Shallow Lakes,Balatonfüred, Hungary 25-30 May 2002
Restoration of Lake Eymir, Turkey by biomanipulation and water level draw-down
Over 25 years of raw sewage effluent discharge shifted Lake Eymir from a lake that had formerly submerged plants, dominated largely by Charophytes with 6–7m of outer depth of colonization, to turbid water state. Partial sewage effluent diversion undertaken in 1995 led to some reduction in the in-lake concentration of nutrients,
which remained still very high (324 mg TP l-1 and 0.1 mg DIN l-1), and the water clarity expressed as Secchi depth was poor (111 cm). The surface coverage of submerged plants was limited (2.5 %). Domination of the fish stock by benthiplanktivorous tench and common carp and their top-down effect appeared to have been the reason for low water clarity and low vegetation cover. The removal of 57 % of the fish, which was accomplished within 1.5 years, led to 2.5 fold increase in the Secchi disk transparency. This was probably induced by the 4.5 fold decrease in
inorganic suspended matter, as well as a significant reduction in the phytoplankton crop. However, a delay was recorded in the redevelopment of the submerged plants, whose coverage increased only to 6.2 % of the total surface area of the lake, probably due to the high coot biomass and their grazing effect (24±4 ind. ha-1). Nevertheless, in
2000, the coverage of submerged plants increased to about 48 % of the lake surface area with 86±22 % PVI, and this led to a major decrease in the in-lake concentrations of TP and DIN as recorded elsewhere. The Secchi depth also trebled. The density of large-bodied Daphnia pulex & Arctodiaptomus bacillifer increased 5 to 10-fold following the fish removal. In 2001, the signs of deterioration in the concentration of TP and DIN, and water clarity were experienced. Despite this, the submerged plants coverage increased to 90 % of the lake surface area though the PVI decreased to 47±29 % This can be attributed to 80 cm drop in the water level. The signs of instability appeared to be combated through water level draw-down.

Benjamin, G. and K. Kenow.
Ecology and Management of Shallow Lakes Symposium, 134th Annual Meeting of The American Fisheries Society, August 22nd – 26th 2004
Vegetation response to 2001 and 2002 summer drawdowns on Upper Mississippi River, pool 8
After almost 70 years of impoundment the mosaic of river habitats on the Upper Mississippi River are disappearing. Investigations into the use of one tool, seasonal summer drawdowns, to increase the aquatic vegetation began in 1996 to 199 with small-scale backwater drawdowns. Positive results in density and diversity of emergent and submersed aquatic species led to a demonstration of the tool on a large-scale in Upper Mississippi River, Pool 8. An 18-inch drawdown was conducted during the summers of 2001 and 2002 resulting in about 2,000 acres of the pool substrate exposed. The drawdown likely contributed to an increase in deep marsh annual, shallow marsh perennial, wet meadow, submersed aquatic vegetation, wet meadow shrub, and shallow marsh annual communities in Pool 8. Arrowhead (Sagittaria latifolia and S. rigida), false pimpernel (Lindernia dubia), water stargrass (Heteranthera dubia), teal lovegrass (Eragrostis hypnoides), rice cutgrass (Leersia oryzoides) and chufa flatsedge (Cyperus esculentus) were the dominate species that developed on exposed substrates. Second year drawdown showed a 16-fold increase in arrowhead tuber production and a shift from annual aquatic plant communities to perennials aquatic plant communities. Submersed aquatic vegetation did not appear to be negatively effected by the two years of drawdown.


Congdon, J. (1993)
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
Lake Puckaway Fishery Restoration Project—1978-1992.
Lake Puckaway was known as one of the finest hunting and fishing lakes in Wisconsin until the late 1960’s. Anglers used the lake heavily year round coming long distances to try their luck on its near legendary fishing. Waterfowl hunter came after the abundant diving ducks, particularly the canvasback, that stopped to rest on the lake and feed during the fall southern migration. By the1950’s, carp were recognized to be a serious problem, but as late as the early 1970’s, fishing quality was still fairly good and lake use was heavy. However, the fishery began to decline precipitously as the carp population expanded. By 1976, the once abundant aquatic vegetation was nearly gone, the water was muddy brown, and angler use had declined to nearly nothing. Concerned lake users and residents as the Wisconsin DNR to develop a plan to restore the fishery waterfowl resource and water quality in Lake Puckaway. Implementation of a three phase plan involving partial drawdown of the lake, mechanical and chemical carp removal, and restocking of game fish species was begun in 1979. This report is a summary of the management program that was implemented and the results that have been achieved to restore the quality of the fishery and waterfowl resource on Lake Puckaway.

International Conference on Limnology of Shallow Lakes Balatonfüred, Hungary 25-30 May 2002
Significance of water level fluctuations for lake management
The regulation of water levels in Dutch lakes has been very extensive, leaving extremely little space for natural fluctuations. It is argued that the regulation has had a strong impact on ecological functioning of shallow lakes. We evaluate a number of probable impacts of a restored water-level regime. These impacts include effects on
shoreline stability en emergent vegetation succession, biogeochemical processes, foodweb interactions, and biodiversity. The timing of low and high water levels and the morphology of the littoral zone are key factors. An assessment was made of the potential ecological effects of an enhanced water-level range in the Veluwemeer, a
shallow eutrophic lake in the Netherlands.

Cooke, G.D., E.B. Welch, S.A. Peterson, and S.A. Nichols. 2005. Restoration and Management of Lakes and Reservoirs. 3rd ed. Taylor & Francis Publishers, Boca Raton, Fl. USA.

Coops, H.
International Conference on Limnology of Shallow Lakes Balatonfüred, Hungary 25-30 May 2002
Significance of water level fluctuations for lake management
The regulation of water levels in Dutch lakes has been very extensive, leaving extremely little space for natural fluctuations. It is argued that the regulation has had a strong impact on ecological functioning of shallow lakes. We evaluate a number of probable impacts of a restored water-level regime. These impacts include effects on
shoreline stability en emergent vegetation succession, biogeochemical processes, foodweb interactions, and biodiversity. The timing of low and high water levels and the morphology of the littoral zone are key factors. An assessment was made of the potential ecological effects of an enhanced water-level range in the Veluwemeer, a
shallow eutrophic lake in the Netherlands.

Coops, H. and S.H. Hosper 2002.
Lake and Reservoir Management 18(4):293-298.
Water-level management as a tool for the restoration of shallow lakes in the Netherlands
Water-level fluctuations are among the major driving forces for shallow lake ecosystems. In the low-lying parts of tf the Netherlands, the water-level regime of lakes is strictly regulated. This is need for reducing risks of flooding and economic purposes, including maximum agricultural benefit. The fixation of water-level fluctuations, considering the functioning of (semi-)aquatic ecosystems. We review the benefits of natural water-level fluctuations, considering the impacts on nutrient inputs, nutrient concentrations, phytoplankton development and turbidity. In particular, the mediating role o submersed and emergent vegetation and filter feeders is addressed. The present government policy, to allow more space for water, presents a major challenge for combining flood prevention measures and ecological restoration. Restoration of natural water-level regimes, which is likely to lead to enhancement of water quality and biodiversity, may occur in two ways: (1) expanding the critical limits between which the water level is allowed to fluctuate annually, and/or (2) incidental recessions of the water level. It is stressed that ecologically-based water-level regimes should be incorporated into the context of multiple use of lakes.

Coops, H., Meryem Beklioglu & Thomas L. Crisman
Hydrobiologia 506–509: 23–27, 2003.
The role of water-level fluctuations in shallow lake ecosystems – workshop Conclusions.
Discussion and conclusions are presented from a workshop held at Balatonfüred, Hungary in May 2002 on the
role of water-level fluctuations on the structure and function of shallow lakes. Water-level regime is regarded
to be an important factor for lake ecosystem functioning and affects conservation values. Biota, in particular
those living in vegetated areas, respond differentially to changes in hydroperiod dynamics. Extreme water levels
may cause shifts between the turbid and the clear, macrophyte-dominated state. Strong effects of anthropogenic
changes in the fluctuation of water levels are shown for Mediterranean (Greece, Turkey) and north temperate (The
Netherlands) regions. Additionally, effects of climate change are anticipated that might alter the functioning of
shallow lakes in these regions differentially. There is a need for data on the relationships between water-level
changes and ecosystem responses. A plea is made for international cooperation and information exchange and an
internet site for facilitating this has been developed.

Engel, S. and S.A. Nichols (1994).
Madison, Wisconsin, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources.
Restoring Rice Lake at Milltown, Wisconsin.
Wind and high water, after decades of erosion and runoff from farms and municipal wastewater treatment plant, converted a clear lake bordered by wild rice into a turbid one dominated by phytoplankton. Rice Lake at Milltown, a 52 ha (128 acre) kettle in northwestern Wisconsin, had northern wild rice (Zizania palustris var. palustris), waterfowl, and panfish until the mid-1970’s. Then the rice almost disappeared and people up fishing and swimming. Now wind, bullheads (Ameirus spp.), and green algae (Chlorophyceae) keep the water turbid. How these changes occurred in Rice Lake was studied from August 1987 through October 1991. Water turbity created a depauperate macrophtye flora offshore, dominated by water lilies (Nuphar variegatum and Nympaea tuberosa), sago pondweed (Potamogeton pectinatus), and floating-leaf pondweed (P. natans). Because secchi disk transparency decrease each June to about 32 cm, macrophytes had bare 4-6 weeks to sprout and float leaves befor being shaded. Under such poor conditions, dry weight staning crop of all submersed macrophyte clumps averaged just 6-12g/m2. Wild rice planted each fall from (0.5 acres in 1988; 2.0 acres in 1989) sprouted well and formed emergent shoots by July. But muskrates (Ondatra z. zibethicus) nipped most shoots ad must be controlled for wild rice to set seed and return. Then wild rice can blunt wind that creates turbidity and can store nutrients that would otherwise wash into downstream Balsam Lake.

Garrison, P., and L. Stremick-Thompson
Ecology and Management of Shallow Lakes Symposium, 134th Annual Meeting of The American Fisheries Society, August 22nd – 26th 2004
The Fox Lake experience: can hypertrophic lakes be restored?
Fox Lake, a large shallow lake in southern Wisconsin, has experienced various restoration efforts during the last 4 decades. During the early 1950s, the lake shifted from a clear water macrophyte dominated phase to a turbid one dominated by algae. In 1966 the fishery was completely eradicated and for about ten years water clarity improved. Most recently, a drawdown of about 1.5 feet was conducted in 1997, without eradication of the existing fishery. The 1997 drawdown resulted in an increase in emergent vegetation for about 2 years but there was not an improvement in submergent vegetation or water clarity. A comprehensive fishery survey was conducted after the drawdown. In addition, efforts to remove benthivorous carp, control harvest of predatory gamefish, and increase recruitment of gamefish populations through stocking were also addressed as part of this project. Overall, post-drawdown catch-per-effort (CPE) for all game, pan, and rough fish decreased from pre-drawdown fish surveys. The panfish fishery remains dominated by planktivorous crappie, and the carp population was not significant reduced by the efforts of this project. The whole lake fish eradication conducted in 1966 was most beneficial for improving water quality. The 1997 drawdown may have been less successful because it was not severe enough to stimulate submergent vegetation growth, and high levels of nutrients delivered from the watershed may have been a confounding factor.

Goldsborough, G. and D. Wrubleski
Ecology and Management of Shallow Lakes Symposium, 134th Annual Meeting of The American Fisheries Society, August 22nd – 26th 2004.
Effects of stabilized water levels in Lake Manitoba on the natural history of Delta Marsh in south-central Manitoba, Canada
Delta Marsh, on the shore of Lake Manitoba in south-central Manitoba, has become highly turbid over the past four decades. The shift from a former clear state is due, in part, to the stabilization of lake water levels in 1961. Our studies over the past six years have documented other changes, including a loss of submersed macrophytes and emergent plant islands from marsh bays, deteriorating water quality, and encroachment of hybrid cattails into shallow inshore areas. We have quantified gross morphometric changes in ponds around the periphery of the marsh, over a 50-year period, using a time series of aerial photographs. Temporal changes in the distribution of marsh vegetation were mapped using high-resolution infrared imagery. In 2003, dramatic seed bank recruitment coincided with the lowest water levels in nearly a century. A proposal by a multi-stakeholder group is presently advocating the partial deregulation of Lake Manitoba as a remedial measure for Delta Marsh and other coastal wetlands; the process by which consensus was achieved will be discussed.


Hamabata E.; Kobayashi Y. 2002. . Lakes & Reservoirs: Research and Management, Volume 7, Number 4, December 2002
Present status of submerged macrophyte growth in Lake Biwa: Recent recovery following a summer decline in the water level

Harris, S.W. and W.H.Marshall. 1963.
Ecology 44:331-343
Ecology of waterlevel manipulations on a northern marsh.

Hudon, C., Pierre Gagnon, Jean-Pierre Amyot, Guy Le´ tourneau, Martin Jean, Ce´ line Plante, Daniel Rioux & Martin Descheˆ nes
Hydrobiologia (2005) 539:205–224
Historical changes in herbaceous wetland distribution induced by hydrological conditions in Lake Saint-Pierre (St. Lawrence River, Quebec, Canada)
Historical changes (1961–2002) in the distribution of herbaceous wetland plant associations were inferred
from the hydrological regime of Lake Saint-Pierre, a 312 km2 broadening of the St. Lawrence River
(Quebec, Canada), to assess the cumulative effects of human interventions and climatic variability. Relative
abundance index (height · percent cover) of wetland plants in 630 field quadrats sampled at 13 sites (1999–
2002) were used to derive a model predicting the occurrence of nine herbaceous plant classes with a 71%
(24–84%) accuracy. Wetland types included seasonally dry (meadows), mudflats and wet (low marshes and
submerged) assemblages. Over the 1961–2002 period, the total surface area of Lake Saint-Pierre herbaceous
wetlands ranged between 11 (in 1972) and 128 (in 2001) km2 and was negatively correlated (Spearman
r ¼ )0.86, p < 0.0001) to average water level during the current growing season. Within-season variability
and level conditions over the previous season defined 5 marsh assemblages characterized by different species
composition, relative abundance and diversity. Significant hydrological variables included quadrat elevation,
water depth, number of days flooded and depth variability experienced over the current and/or
previous growth seasons. The hydrological model suggests that for a given level, wetland plant assemblages
differed markedly whether the multi-year sequence of water levels was rising or falling. Lake Saint-Pierre
alternated between three broad-scale wetland configurations, dominated by meadows and open marsh with
floating-leaved vegetation (in the 1960s), scattered tall Scirpus marshes (in the 1970s and early 1980s) and
closed marsh with aggressive emergents (since 1996). The strong response of Lake Saint-Pierre wetlands to
hydrological conditions in the current and previous growth seasons underlines their vulnerability to future
water level variations resulting from regulation and climate variability.

Janse, J.H.; Ligtvoet, W.; Van Tol, S.; Bresser, A.H.M.
2001 The Scientific World, 605-614.
A Model Study on the Role of Wetland Zones in Lake Eutrophication and Restoration
Shallow lakes respond in different ways to changes in nutrient loading (nitrogen, phosphorus). These lakes may be in two different states: turbid, dominated by phytoplankton, and clear, dominated by submerged macrophytes. Both states are self-stabilizing; a shift from turbid to clear occurs at much lower nutrient loading than a shift in the opposite direction. These critical loading levels vary among lakes and are dependent on morphological, biological, and lake management factors. This paper focuses on the role of wetland zones. Several processes are important: transport and settling of suspended solids, denitrification, nutrient uptake by marsh vegetation (increasing nutrient retention), and improvement of habitat conditions for predatory fish. A conceptual model of a lake with surrounding reed marsh was made, including these relations. The lake-part of this model consists of an existing lake model named PCLake[1]. The relative area of lake and marsh can be varied. Model calculations revealed that nutrient concentrations are lowered by the presence of a marsh area, and that the critical loading level for a shift to clear water is increased. This happens only if the mixing rate of the lake and marsh water is adequate. In general, the relative marsh area should be quite large in order to have a substantial effect. Export of nutrients can be enhanced by harvesting of reed vegetation. Optimal predatory fish stock contributes to water quality improvement, but only if combined with favourable loading and physical conditions. Within limits, the presence of a wetland zone around lakes may thus increase the ability of lakes to cope with nutrients and enhance restoration. Validation of the conclusions in real lakes is recommended, a task hampered by the fact that, in the Netherlands, many wetland zones have disappeared in the past.

Kahl, R. (1993)
Madison, Wisconsin, Wisconsin DNR.
Aquatic macrophyte ecology in the Upper Winnebago Pool Lakes.
The primary factors limiting overall abundance of macrophytes during this study likely included high spring-summer water levels, abnormal timing and magnitude of water level fluctuations and turbidity. Consistently high water levels in May and June of 1975-84 probably controlled abundance of most emergent macrophytes system-wide. Rapidly rising water levels during the floating-leaf stage through June and early July apparently determine system wide abundance of wildrice. A revised water level management plan implemented in 1982 failed to reduce late spring and early summer water levels. Low light availability (restricted by water turbidity and epiphyte communities) apparently was the ultimate limiting factor determining long-term system-wide abundance of submerged macrophytes to maximum depths of 55-61 inches in Lake Poygan and 47-53 inches in Lake Butte des Morts. These maximum depth limits approximated the 5% photic zone for Lake Poygan (57-67 inches) and the 5-10 photic zone for Lake Butte des Morts (46-60 inches). However, because of consistently high turbidity through the study, late spring, and early summer water levels determined the amount of lake bottom within the photic zone, and thus the annual abundance of submerged macrophytes. Primary sources of turbidity for Lake Butte des Morts included the Fox River, the Wolf River at Winneconne, lesser tributaries, and in-lake phytoplankton populations. For Lake Poygan, in-lake sources and lesser tributaries accounted for most turbidity.

Sediments and undesirable fish-primarily carp and freshwater drum – may be important sources of nutrient than external sources leading to high phytoplankton and epiphytic communities. Wave action and undesirable fish probably have a greater impact on submerged macrophytes in the UWPL by contributing to turbidity than through direct physical damage to plants. Injure to new shoots and rhizomes by wave action, boats, and undesirable fish may restrict expansion of establish stands or prevent re-establishment of perennial emergents in some locations. Furthermore, wave action severely erodes unprotected shorelines, adjacent marshes, and shallow littoral sediments. Management recommendations are (1) revise the water level management plan by establishing a new spring-summer target level under 2.5 ft. at the Oshkosh gage, but allow periodic seasonal and anuual fluctuations above and below this level to simulate seasonal and longer-term drought and flooding phases of a natural hydrologic cycle; also moderating winter-drawdowns; (2) continue research to identify sources of turbidity and nutrients, especially from nopoint sources including tributaries, lakeshore and side-channel developments, sediments, wave action, and undesirable fish; (3) determine factors limiting expansion of existing emergent macrophyte stands, especially long-term and short-term fluctuations, wave action, boats, and undesireable fish; (4) develop and implement watershed and lake management plans, including large-scale breakwater projects to reduce water turbidity and improve water level management; (5) monitor water quality, macrophytes, and shoreline erosion to evaluate management efforts; and (6) evaluate harvest and planting techniques for propagules of macrophyte species important to these lakes.

Kumlien, T. 1877.
Lake Koshkonong. By and old settler. Pp 628-631 in: Madison, Dane County and surrounding towns: being a history and guide to places of scenic beauty and historical note found in the town of Danc County and surroundings, including the organization of the towns, and early intercourse of the settlers with the Indians, their camps, trails, mounds, etc., with a complete list of county supervisors and officers, and legislative members, Madison village and city council. Wm. J. Park & Co., Madison.

LEYER, I.
Journal of Applied Ecology(2005) 42, 239–250
Predicting plant species’ responses to river regulation: the role of water level fluctuations
Summary
1.One of the main targets of river regulation with dams and dykes is the stabilization of highly fluctuating water tables. While there is information about the overall impact of such regulation measures on plant species composition and richness, far less is known about specific species’ response patterns to reduced water level fluctuations.
2.The response of 30 common grassland species to soil moisture and water level fluctuations was assessed. Floristic data were collected from the floodplain of the Elbe River, Germany, from 182 plots, 99 within the recent floodplain and 83 in an older floodplain, separated from one another by dykes. Hydrological data were collected weekly over 2 years at 37 water level wells. Using logistic regression, the patterns of species’ responses to hydrological regulation were predicted.
3.The majority of species responded significantly to water level fluctuations. Species of high elevation habitats occurred at lower elevations where water level fluctuations were reduced, indicating increasing drought at high elevation habitats. However, species that occurred in floodplain depressions tended to shift from lower to higher elevations to avoid permanent inundation.
4.Almost half of the species showed a significant preference for either highly fluctuating water tables, characteristic of the recent floodplain, or for stable water tables, characteristic of the older floodplain. The probability of their occurrence was either reduced or increased along a gradient of reduced fluctuations. These species’ responses could be partly explained by altered flooding regimes, although other factors, such as disturbance and dispersal processes, were also involved.
5.Synthesis and applications
. This study demonstrates that reduced water level fluctuations caused by the construction of dams and dykes lead to substantial changes in the spatial distribution of floodplain plant species and in species composition. The methodology reported here allows accurate prediction of shifts in floodplain vegetation in response to human-induced alterations in floodplain landscapes. This can be used as a tool to assess river regulation measures and for floodplain restoration purposes, such as dyke relocations.

Markl, R.
Ecology and Management of Shallow Lakes Symposium, 134th Annual Meeting of The American Fisheries Society, August 22nd – 26th 2004.
The Heron Lake restoration project: big watersheds, big lakes, tough challenges.
Heron Lake is a large 3,238 ha (8,000 acre) shallow lake with a 1,178 square kilometer (455 square mile) watershed. Over 90% of the watershed is intensively drained agricultural land. Water depths, in the lake, average 0.8 meters (2.5 feet), though there can be regular sustained bounces to depths of over 2.4 meters (8 feet). Historically, Heron Lake has had considerable use by migrating diving ducks (reported 700,000 Canvasbacks (Aythya valisineria)). Changes in watershed land uses, nutrient discharges, flood flows, water level management (higher water levels), climatic conditions, dominant in-lake vegetation species, and carp introduction, among other things, have lead to a serious decline in water quality, desirable vegetation, and bird use. Around 1989, dissenting factions agreed that something must be done. Support and funding started traditional mending processes, including watershed treatments (buffer strips, wetland restorations, permanent vegetation plantings, best management practices, etc), wastewater treatment plant improvements, improved water level management (lower water levels), control of undesirable fish and stocking of desirable fish. Though some success has been observed, the road is long. Often times, the opinions/desires/needs of the human factions do not agree with each other, the wildlife needs, or the applied management practices

Miquet, A.
THE 7th INTECOL INTERNATIONAL WETLANDS CONFERENCE IN UTRECHT, THE NETHERLANDS, July 25-30, 2004
Effects of water level regulation on littoral vegetation of Lake Bourget (France)
As in most Alpine lakes, reedbeds have strongly declined over the last century in area (about 50 % in the last 50 years in Lake Bourget), physiognomy and sanitary condition. This was due to an addition of factors, all of which have been magnified by the recent (1982) Water Regulation Program. Lower level during vegetation season has permitted brush encroachment, which is accelerated by the restriction of fluctuation, causing floating wastes to accumulate constantly on the same shoreline. Higher water level in early autumn inhibits the mineralization of organic matter, the germination of Phragmites (but not of Schoenoplectus), and also reed vegetative horizontal extension. Overall, lower mean level and smaller water fluctuation concentrate erosion both on sediments
by wave action, and on reed stems by floating objects. Due to water stability storms always occur at the same waterlevel, which aggravates erosion impact and impedes the cicatrization of littoral vegetation. A re-negociation of the Water Regulation Program is initiated in regard to the Water Directive: while the elevation of spring-summer level seems impossible, for hydraulic and political reasons, the lowering of autumn levels could be achieved, but limited for the sake of navigation and dependent on rainfall. However, the social demand for scheduled water-calendars prevents any yearly adaptation to climatic conditions; thus, in spite of the historic opportunity given by the
draught in summer 2003, and due to a "perfusion" from the Rhône River, Lake Bourget did not lose a single millimeter.

Scheffer, M. S. Carpenter, J.A. Foley, C. Folke, and B.Walker. 2001.
Nature 413: 591-596.
Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems

Schumacher, E., S. Beyler, and T. Zagar.
Ecology and Management of Shallow Lakes Symposium, 134th Annual Meeting of The American Fisheries Society, August 22nd – 26th 2004.
Shallow lake restoration: Big Muskego 1996-2004
Prior to our project, 900- hectare Big Muskego Lake was mired in a turbid, algae-dominated state for decades. After elimination of treated sewage effluent in 1984, it remained turbid; generating little recreation associated with fisheries and wildlife. Intent on shifting the lake’s environment to a macrophyte-dominated, clear water state, we began our project in Fall, 1995 with an 18- month water level drawdown. We removed the carp (Cyprinus carpio) dominated fish population, restocked 20 native fish species, enacted restrictive fishing regulations to promote bio-manipulation of algae-grazing zooplankton and constructed a mechanical and electrical carp barrier to prevent carp re-colonization. Post project we have seen marked improvement in Trophic State Index values and electrofishing catch per unit of effort of desirable native fish. In a hemi-marsh mosaic of interspersed cattails and open water, desirable macrophytes now dominate the environment. Despite a partial winterkill of the fish population and re-colonization by carp, the lake remains in the clear-water state. Recognizing the “new” value of the lake, Big Muskego has been designated as one of the few remaining “Land Legacy” areas in Southern Wisconsin and remaining riparian open space is being preserved cooperatively by the City of Muskego and Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources.

Van Geest, G.J., H. Wolters, F.C.J.M. Roozen, H. Coops, R.M.M. Roijackers, A.D. Buijse & M. Scheffer
Hydrobiologia (2005) 539:239–248
Water-level fluctuations affect macrophyte richness in floodplain lakes
The characteristic ecology of floodplain lakes is in part due to their relatively strong water-level fluctuations.
We analyzed the factors determining water-level fluctuations in 100 floodplain lakes (during non-
flooded conditions) in the active floodplains of the Lower Rhine in the Netherlands. Furthermore, we
explored the relationship between water-level fluctuations and macrophyte species richness, and analyzed
the suitability of artificially created lakes for macrophyte vegetation. During non-flooded conditions along
the Rhine, lake water-level fluctuations are largely driven by groundwater connection to the river. Hence,
water-level fluctuations are largest in lakes close to the main channel in strongly fluctuating sectors of the
river and smallest in isolated lakes. Additionally, water-level fluctuations are usually small in old lakes,
mainly due to reduced groundwater hydraulic conductivity resulting from accumulated clay and silt on the
bottom. Species richness of floating-leaved and emergent macrophytes was reduced at both small and large
water-level fluctuations, whereas species richness of submerged macrophytes was reduced at small waterlevel
fluctuations only. In addition, species richness of submerged macrophytes was higher in lakes that experienced drawdown, whereas no similar pattern was detected for floating-leaved and emergent macrophytes. The decline in amplitude of lake water-level with lake age implies that the number of hydrologically dynamic lakes will decrease over time. Therefore, we suggest that excavation of new lakes is essential to conserve the successional sequence of floodplain water bodies including conditions of high biodiversity. Shallow, moderately isolated, lakes with occasional bottom exposure have the highest potential for creating macrophyte-rich floodplain lakes along large lowland rivers. The water-level regime of such lakes can in part be designed, through choice of the location along the river, the distance away from the river and the depth profile of the lake.
VAN GEEST, G. J., H. COOPS, R. M. M. ROIJACKERS,A. D. BUIJSE and M. SCHEFFER
Journal of Applied Ecology 2005 42, 251–260
Succession of aquatic vegetation driven by reduced water-level fluctuations in floodplain lakes
1. In recent years, interest has grown in restoring floodplain function of regulated rivers. Successful rehabilitation of riparian systems requires knowledge of how regulation of river flow affects biodiversity and ecosystem function. The effects of changes in the river’s low water-level regime on aquatic ecosystems in floodplains has received little
attention so far.
2. The aquatic vegetation of 215 floodplain lakes along the Lower Rhine (the Netherlands) was analysed in relation to lake characteristics and lake water-level fluctuations in 1999–2000.
3. Vegetation composition was related to lake morphology and age, cattle access to the shoreline, the amount of time the river was in flood, and lake sediment area exposed at low water level (drawdown). Surprisingly, vegetation composition was correlated more strongly with lake age and occurrence of drawdown than the amount of time the river was in flood.
4. In older lakes, water-level fluctuations are reduced due to an accumulation of clay and silt that ‘seals’ sediment, preventing drawdown during periods of low river levels. Our results suggest that this clay sealing process is a major driving force for aquatic vegetation succession in floodplain lakes along the Lower Rhine, as succession drives from
desiccation-tolerant species (e.g. Chara spp.) in young lakes to desiccation-sensitive species (e.g. Nuphar lutea) in old lakes.
5. Water levels were stable in lakes along a river branch that was impounded below mean flow only. Here, the original low water-level regime has been replaced by an artificial regime with higher water levels than would be expected naturally. Consequently, in these lakes drawdown was rare or absent, and the aquatic macrophyte vegetation was characterized by low species richness and frequent dominance by the invasive species Elodea nuttallii

6. Synthesis and applications. Our results show that stabilization of river water levels during low flow may negatively affect vegetation composition and succession in floodplain lakes adjacent to these rivers. A management scheme including incidental temporary lowering of the river water level, which results in drawdown of floodplain lakes, would enhance the ecological status of those rivers with stabilized water levels during low flow.

Vollenweider, R.A. 1968. Scientific fundementals of the eutrophication of lakes and flowing waters, with particular reference to nitrogen and phosphorus as factors in eutrophication. Rep. N. DAS?CSI/68.27. Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris.


High Water Levels Destroying Protected Wetlands
Common Council Will Vote On DNR Request Tuesday
: High Water Levels Destroying Protected Wetlands]
MADISON, Wis. -- Madison's protected Cherokee Marsh is under attack from high water.
Some local environmental experts said on Monday that rising water in the marsh is slowly killing off portions of the precious wetlands.

"You have to go out and see it," said Madison Parks Commission president Bill Barker. "You have to see the big chunks of wetlands tearing away and floating away."
"These wetlands did not evolve to be floating," said conservation resource supervisor Russ Hefty. "They're only floating because the dam or series of dams at Tenney Park back the water up into the Yahara River. These wetlands that were growing on peat, and instead of being inundated and lost immediately, floated up. Ever since that happened, they've been steadily eroding away."
Hefty said additional runoff from more development has also added to the water level, and recent heavy rains only add to the problem."I dread going out to look after it pops up two to two and a half feet above what it's supposed to be because I know what I'm going to see," said Hefty.
On Monday, Hefty took a boat tour of the marsh and showed a WISC-TV news crew large sections of sedge meadow drifting on the water.
"They will die off because of such small size," said Hefty. "Between the wind action and the ice action, things will get whittled away, so it's kind of like a slow death."
Hefty said at least 7 feet of marsh shoreline disappears every year. He said a least a full square mile of it has gone since the first dam was put on Lake Mendota in the mid-1800s.
"It accelerates as it gets wider and the waves get bigger," said Hefty. "It's a downward cycle."
"Ultimately, we're losing habitat that does support a wide variety of birds and other wildlife," said Hefty.
Some experts would like to see the lake level lowered on Lake Mendota, which in turn would lower the level in Cherokee Marsh, WISC-TV reported.
"Anything we can do to lower the summertime levels will enhance the growth of the plants," said Hefty. "And it will also reduce the loss when we have flood events because if you start at a lower elevation you have more storage so it won't rise up as high."
Those wetland plants also serve another purpose. They hold back silt that would otherwise wash in to Lake Mendota.
"Any silt that we can catch up in this part of the watershed, as opposed to having it travel freely to Lake Mendota has certainly got to have some sort of positive impact on the ultimate water quality," he said.

City officials will soon have the opportunity to weigh on the issue. On Tuesday night, the Madison Common Council will vote on a resolution that will, among other things, put a formal request in to the state Department of Natural Resources to review the lake level policy, something that hasn't been done since 1979.
"We can't just let this go on," said Barker. "If the high water levels of the lake are eroding and increasing the width of the upper Yahara River channel by 7 feet a year -- that's tens of acres of high quality marshland lost every year."
Hefty and Barker said that they hope this is the year for change. They said many of the groups that have an interest on the lakes have been impacted by the high water this year.
"You've got lakeshore property owners who aren't pleased about flooding or damage to their shorelines and having to rip out piers before their float away," said Hefty. "You've got boaters who've been denied a lot of recreation because of no wake orders."
Hefty said the key to making change is having everyone on the same page.
"This could be a real historic opportunity to really have the kind of discussion that maybe wasn't occurring in the past," said Hefty.
DNR officials said reviewing the lake level policy could take a year or longer.
A request to raise the level of Lake Koshkonong in the 1980s is still being hashed out in court because of opposing sides, WISC-TV reported.

* July 11, 2008: Resolution Put Forth To Lower Lake Mendota's Water Levels
Copyright 2008 by Channel 3000. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.

Wetlands chairman
wants scientific data,
not reminiscences
E-mail this page E-mail a letter to the editor Reader Comments (below)
By MARY GROW
Correspondent Kennebec Journal & Morning Sentinel Thursday, June 7, 2007

Today's Top Headlines
from the Kennebec Journal

Wyeth: 'One goes as far as one's heart takes him'
Northbound I-295 repaving planned
Despite alternative programs, system and inmates can fail
AUGUSTA 7 FACING JOB LOSS
Applin to depart Bread of Life post
TO YOUR HEALTH
Source: Red Sox extend Youkilis
Black Bears hope to get back on track after 2nd-half slump

All of today's: News | Sports
from the Kennebec Journal

Today's Top Headlines
from the Morning Sentinel

Wyeth: 'One goes as far as one's heart takes him'
FAIRFIELD Youths charged in police incident
WINSLOW Landlord begins cleanup of Clinton Ave. property
For SAD 53 towns, time is running out
Pilot ditches plane into Hudson River; all on board survive
Rug, made for Muskie, goes to D.C.
Source: Red Sox extend Youkilis
BOYS BASKETBALL NOTES: Road woes follow Waterville

All of today's: News | Sports
from the Morning Sentinel

CHINA -- Selectman Neil Farrington sees the wetlands committee he chairs as intended to make sure China wetlands are healthy and performing their critical functions.

Farrington wants the panel to focus on the value of wetlands to prevent erosion, collect sediments, control flooding and absorb pollutants to keep them out of lakes. And he told a small audience at a public forum Tuesday that he wants scientific information -- not reminiscences or arguments about effects of a higher lake level -- on which to base decisions.

He said a scientific study would cost $60,000 to $100,000.

Committee member Virginia Davis questioned the purpose of the committee. If it is to study wetlands, she recommended considering other values as well, such as habitat and recreation. If it is to study China Lake's water quality problems, she thinks other factors are more important than wetlands.

Committee member Peter Wilkens agreed with Davis that plants and animals, at least, should be part of a wetlands study.

In back-to-back educational meetings arranged by Farrington, Peter Kallin, Belgrade Regional Conservation Alliance executive director, talked Monday about the value of wetlands. Tuesday evening, committee and audience members heard from David Firmage, Colby College professor who directed the recent China Lake watershed study.

Firmage recommended the committee start by finding out what kinds of wetlands affect China Lake and Three Mile Pond. Different types function differently, he said.

Depending on the type of wetland and the time of year, a wetland may absorb nutrients and pollutants and help protect lake water quality; or it may release previously stored material and worsen water quality.

Firmage offered Colby's services to test China Lake water for phosphorus, the nutrient that has the most effect on algae blooms, if volunteers collect samples at intervals.

Al Althenn, of China, asked Kallin and Firmage if aerial photos of China Lake over the last 30 years showed evidence of loss of lakeside wetlands, would it concern them?

Kallin said wetlands adjust to fluctuating water levels, but that loss of wetlands would be a cause for concern.

Firmage said over five to 10 years the flooded wetlands would change, but would still function.

Althenn argued that a 10-year-old wetland is not the same as China's peat bogs, which he said took thousands of years to establish.

Firmage replied that, in terms of effects on water quality, the two would not differ much. In fact, he said, the older bog would be more likely than the newer one to overfertilize the lake by releasing nutrients.

Althenn is convinced the state Department of Environmental Protection is responsible for China Lake's water quality problems. He alleges that the state's water level order keeps the lake too high, and that state regulators instigated the order to provide enough flow in the outlet stream to accommodate state-approved Vassalboro Sanitary District outfalls.

Farrington said repeatedly the wetlands committee's role is not to argue over past actions, but to gather scientific evidence on which to decide what needs to be done for the lakes.


Reader comments

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Al Althenn of China, ME
Jun 7, 2007 9:29 AM
I’d just like to point out Dr. Firmage of Colby did state early on in his remarks that he is not a wetland expert. I found Dr. Firmage’s talk to be informative and thank him for taking time and coming to China to help us.

My question of Dr. Firmage was very brief and certainly did not address my total concern regarding the differences between a newly flooded cow pasture and an old established eco-system like the old peat bogs surrounding China Lake. A large portion of the recharge water coming into China Lake must flow through those old wetlands. Those wetland/peat bogs and being lost by keeping the water too high and stable through the growing season drowning much of the natural wetland plants, that doesn’t allow them to provide the water filtering function and values needed to keep the water coming into our lake, clean.

In addition the peat bogs are dissolving (causing things like floating islands) and allowing the nutrient rich materials accumulated over thousands of years and usually held in place by the natural wetland plants to enter the lakes water column. This important part of a whole natural wetland process is being lost. The loss is happening because those plants need a much lower water level to survive and need that water level to naturally fluctuate down over the course of the dry summer months providing habitat for the life cycles the plants and animals in them need to reproduce and thrive.

The current water level order (benefiting special interests outside of China) mandates the water level in China Lake and thusly in the wetlands to be almost 5 feet higher than natural levels (by the end of summer). The water is held at that high spring level without fluctuation during the entire critical growing season.

COPYRIGHT 2004 Knight-Ridder/Tribune Business News

By Dan McGillvray, Kennebec Journal, Augusta, Maine Knight Ridder/Tribune Business News

Mar. 19--State regulators Thursday voted 4-2 to deny a request by Al Althenn to reconsider their vote in January that left China Lake's water levels intact.

The Board of Environmental Protection and Department of Environmental Protection have been...

Saturday, March 12, 2005
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Adam Bird / Associated Press

Cheryl Mendoza stands in front of Lake Michigan near her home in Grand Haven. Mendoza has been carefully watching the water level of the lake, which is starting to return to its normal level after being low for some time.

Wetlands, fish, people benefit from rise in Great Lakes' levels

By James Prichard / Associated Press

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GRAND RAPIDS -- Rising water levels in the Great Lakes during the past year not only have delighted property owners, who prefer views of waves over weeds, but the swelling bodies also are feeding commerce and a variety of plants and animals that call the lakes home.

High water means more cargo and bigger profits for the shipping industry. It means boaters can more easily get into and out of marinas. It means more visitors at Michigan's beaches.

It also means the replenishment of wetlands along the state's shoreline, which are havens for countless varieties of fauna and flora.

Many people expressed concern about the drop in the Great Lakes' water levels that occurred from the late 1990s through last year. Lakefront property owners disliked seeing the exposed weedy bottomlands that are crucial to wildlife. Less water meant less cash for shippers in an industry where an extra inch of lake water allows a 1,000-foot freighter to carry an additional 270 tons of goods, according to the Cleveland-based Lake Carriers' Association.

Douglas Wilcox, who heads up the coastal and wetland ecology branch of the U.S. Geological Survey's Great Lakes Science Center in Ann Arbor, said many people don't understand the cyclical rise and fall of the lake levels or their long-standing importance to the well-being of the lakes' complex ecosystem.

"The absolute best thing that could happen is to have a high lake level followed by a low lake level, and then water levels come back up," he said.

"The low lake levels that we had several years ago were a godsend. We've been waiting since the 1960s to have low lake levels. They expose the sediments."

Many wetlands dot the state's shoreline, particularly in bays, inlets and river mouths, and taller, broader plants can dominate a wetland in which the water level is high.

As the water recedes and the lake bottom is exposed, the dominant plants will die off and other species whose seeds may have sat dormant for years in the sediment will replace them, regenerating plant diversity.

Without that process, such a habitat would be lost, Wilcox said.

"Those plant species will provide food and habitat for incredible numbers and diversities of invertebrates, which will provide food for a whole lot of small fish, which will provide food for a whole lot of big fish," he said.

When water levels drop and lake bottoms are exposed along the shoreline, the resulting mud or sand flats often become covered with vegetation. While owners of beach homes might consider the plants weeds in need of removal, waterfowl love the vegetation, said Wil Cwikiel, policy director of the Tip of the Mitt Watershed Council in Petoskey.

"It's great for nesting mallards," he said. "They love to nest in that sort of thing."

As a lake rises, its vegetative coastal areas and wetlands become ideal spawning grounds for many fish species, including bass, perch, muskie and walleye. When the water levels off, wave action and ice formations remove much of the underwater vegetation, necessitating the need for another drop.

Cynthia Sellinger, a hydrologist at the Ann Arbor-based Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, said the levels of all five Great Lakes are much higher than they were in March 2004.

As of this week, Lake Erie was up 16 inches, Lakes Huron and Michigan were 11 inches higher and Lakes Ontario and Superior were up 8 inches.

Sellinger blamed the below-normal levels of the previous half-dozen years on less rain and snow in the Great Lakes basin combined with more evaporation caused by unusually warm temperatures.

The basin includes the Canadian province of Ontario and portions of eight states: Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin.

"Last fall was a very wet fall and that just really started pushing the lakes back up," Sellinger said. "Then this winter has been really good because we've had a cold winter where we're having a nice snow pack building up, so by the time the ground thaws, we'll have a good spring runoff."

Good enough for water levels to remain above last year's amounts for at least another six months, she said. "I know boaters are really excited about that."

The levels of Lakes Erie, Ontario and Superior are between 3 and 11 inches higher than their long-term averages measured between 1900 and 2000, she said.

Lakes Michigan and Huron, which are always at the same water level because of their hydraulic connection at the Straits of Mackinac, are 9 inches below their long-term averages. It might be because of different weather patterns on those two lakes, Sellinger said.

"The region's so large, we don't get just one air mass," she said.

While weather patterns, ocean currents and even sun spots affect lake levels, some environmentalists worry about human influences such as global warming and dredging in the Great Lakes' connecting channels.

"The greater concern was, is this a natural fluctuation that's going to come back or is this some permanent damage that's being caused from climate change," said Cheryl Mendoza, water-conservation program manager of the Lake Michigan Federation, which has offices in Chicago and Grand Haven.

"The Great Lakes are fragile and they are vulnerable, and we need to better understand the role that humans can play in manipulating and changing and altering that natural cycle," said Tip of the Mitt's Cwikiel.

On the Net:

Great Lakes Science Center: http://www.glsc.usgs.gov/

Tip of the Mitt Watershed Council: http://www.watershedcouncil.org/

Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory: http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/

Lake Michigan Federation: http://www.lakemichigan.org/

See more articles from The Post-Standard (Syracuse, NY)

EROSION EATS AWAY ONTARIO'S SHORELINE; PLAN THAT DETERMINES HOW MUCH WATER STAYS IN LAKE ONTARIO IS UNDER REVIEW.(News)

Article from:
The Post-Standard (Syracuse, NY)
Article date:
August 3, 2005
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lake wetlands wilcox "high water" | Copyright informationCOPYRIGHT 2005 All rights reserved. Reproduced with the permission of The Herald Co. by the Gale Group, Inc. This material is published under license from the publisher through the Gale Group, Farmington Hills, Michigan. All inquiries regarding rights should be directed to the Gale Group. (Hide copyright information)

Byline: Nadia Alvarado Contributing writer

Cheryl Gressani, of Syracuse, has watched the beachfront at her family's camp on Lake Ontario gradually change since she started going there in the 1950s.

Over the last 20 years, though, the beach at Montario Point began disappearing at a quicker rate than before, she said. As a third-generation shoreline property owner, Gressani wonders if there will be any beach left for her son to inherit.

"I'm not just some snotty private land owner," Gressani said. "I'm an environmentalist too. I'm not just concerned about the loss of my land, but the loss of the public beaches and the environment those beaches support, which is ...



Building on the shoreline
By JIM MANN
The Daily Inter Lake
Published: Tuesday, October 24, 2006 1:02 AM CDT
Water ways: Last in a series

Years ago, the water on Flathead Lake’s Goose Bay was much farther away from homes, but today its striking clarity is much like it was back before Kerr Dam was built.

That was in the 1930s, when Sally Hatfield was just a little girl, the granddaughter of Frank B. Linderman, the renowned writer, outdoorsman, legislator and American Indian advocate.

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In 1912, Linderman built a sturdy and comfortable larch-log cabin at the head of Goose Bay, and it still stands in good condition today.

But things have changed quite a bit on the west shore since Hatfield’s childhood.

“The lake was much further out, and there were very few people around,” says Hatfield, 75.

Linderman owned 3,000 feet of shoreline — a chunk of ground that would go for roughly $30 million at today’s average lake-frontage prices. The nearest settlement to the north was a couple of miles away in Hughes Bay. The nearest place to the south was owned by a relative, Sam Johns, and was just within view of the Linderman cabin.

“I remember that it just seemed like it took forever, to a kid, to get down here from Kalispell,” Hatfield recalls.

The sparsely developed landscape stretched around the lake’s perimeter, all the way to the University of Montana’s biological station at Yellow Bay, which had been founded by Morton Elrod, another prominent figure in Montana history. Most of Elrod’s photographs of the lake, taken around the turn of the century, show rock and gravel shorelines, backed by thick forests.

Those shorelines have since been subdivided and sold and filled in with homes and docks. Now there are about a dozen homes visible from the beach in front of the Linderman Cabin.

The steady, seemingly relentless development of homes and businesses and towns around the lake over decades may appear to be a pollution pile-on, but that’s not necessarily the case, according to Jack Stanford, the internationally recognized limnologist and director of the University of Montana’s Flathead Lake Biological Station.

How much does the surrounding development contribute to the lake’s overall pollution load?

“The answer is not much — surprisingly,” says Stanford, sitting in his office at the Yellow Bay biological station.

Stanford said just about 5 percent of the total pollution can be traced to the immediate shoreline.

“The technology of septic systems is really quite good,” he said, adding that it has gotten better over time to accompany the most rapid periods of lakefront building.

Stanford’s list of other, more harmful sources of water-quality degradation is long. Storm-water runoff into the lake, the Flathead river and its tributaries from roads and parking lots is a primary source of nutrient loading that causes algae blooms and other symptoms of degraded water quality.

Stanford, a staunch lake-protection advocate who started at the biological station in 1971, takes the unexpected position that on Flathead Lake, individual septic systems have been far better than the alternative — lakeside sewer systems.

The reason is simple: Sewer systems financially demand and attract higher-density construction, the type that can be seen in the town of Lakeside.

“When you do that [build sewer systems],” he said, “you have the Lakeside phenomenon where the density dramatically increases.”

Stanford said development around Flathead Lake was entirely predictable when he started at the biological station in 1971, because it is almost all private land. But along most of the lakeshore, development has occurred in a low-density fashion with homeowners relying on individual septic systems.

Stanford often compares Flathead Lake to Lake Tahoe, noting that dense urbanization around Lake Tahoe has had dire impacts on water quality there.

But Flathead Lake has one major drawback that Lake Tahoe does not — a dam that became operational in 1938, when Sally Hatfield was just 7 years old.

Shoreline erosion caused by Kerr Dam has produced profound harm over decades, according to Stanford.

“That relentless shoreline development still doesn’t compare to

the damage done by Kerr Dam and shoreline erosion,” Stanford says.

The dam raised the lake well above a shoreline that had been scoured down to bedrock over thousands of years, raising wave action to scour soils into sediments.

The worst losses have occurred downwind of the head of the lake, where intermingled forests and wetlands have been chiseled away for nearly seven decades. The wetlands have long served as a natural filter for upstream nutrients and pollution flowing into the lake.

Mark Lorang, a research assistant professor at the biological station, estimates the north shore has receded up to one mile since the dam was built.

While there have been measurable declines in the lake’s water quality, it is still comparably one of the cleanest lakes in the world, mainly because of cold, clean water flowing from Glacier National Park and drainages in the Bob Marshall and Mission Mountain wilderness areas.

“You can still stand on your dock and look down and see the bottom of the lake,” Stanford said. “But that’s largely because 80 percent of the water coming into the lake is coming from protected areas.”

Plus there have been practical efforts to address pollution sources in the developing Flathead Valley.

Bob and Sally Hatfield recall that in the early 1960s, researchers from the University of Montana showed up at Goose Bay with concerns about pollution. The Hatfields signed on as volunteers to conduct the first dye tests on Flathead Lake, a process of putting colored dyes into septic systems to determine if they were “leaking” into the lake.

“Each group had an area and our area was from here to the Lutheran Camp,” Bob Hatfield said. “Sure, they found pollution.”

But to this day, he noted, the water at Goose Bay passes tests for safe drinking water.

“We had this tested, and we can drink that water,” he said.

Just how much of Flathead Lake’s shoreline has been developed?

Planning and other land-use databases sort out structures by their street addresses, rather than their waterfront locations.

Groups such as the Flathead Lake Protection Association have distributed materials to shoreline property owners, but that’s been done by door-to-door visits rather than mailing lists.

Based on those distributions and more than 30 years in the real estate business around Flathead Lake, Lakeside Realtor Bruce Young estimates there are 4,000 residential structures around the lake.

Young says the amount of construction just over the last decade has been mind-boggling. But even with all the new real estate, Young says the number of listings has grown scarce, and listings for undeveloped shoreline property are even rarer.

Young predicts those conditions could put even more pressure on the lake in the future. While it may seem that there’s little room for more building and more pollution, that’s not necessarily the case, Young said.

“It’s very difficult but it will continue,” he said. “Properties will be amalgamated.”

By that, Young means wealthy developers will buy pieces of larger tracts and gradually combine them for high-density developments.

And there is potential for “funneling” people who live away from the lake to exclusive access properties, a practice that has been restricted in Florida, among other states.

“If you’re funneling too many people to that one piece of lakeshore, there can be excessive impacts,” Young said.

Another ongoing threat is development that runs roughshod over planning regulations. It still happens, Young said, noting the recent development of a condominium complex in Somers that basically extended into the lake, below the high-water mark.

Young said Flathead County’s site plan review did not account for the problem, and the project proceeded until a minor wind storm pushed waves into the structure’s lower deck, causing a plume of sediment to wash into Somers Bay. The project has been voluntarily halted since then, and the developer plans to fix the problem by downsizing the structure away from the lake and restoring the shoreline.

Young said that project and others like it are not ecological disasters on their own, but they do have cumulative effects.

“We just can’t continue to afford this kind of thing because it all adds up,” he said.

Pressure for high-density development will increase as a result of the Flathead Valley being discovered by wealthy people, he predicts.

“What we’re looking at now, it’s just the tip of the iceberg,” Young said. “More money is going to come to this valley.”

Increasingly, homes are being built into rocky slopes and other locations around the lake that were once considered unfavorable for building.

“Years ago, you’d look at land and think, why would you ever build there?” Young said. “But the truth is that it’s become so scarce that people have gotten extremely creative about how and where they build.”

Stanford notes that smaller places are being scraped away to make room for trophy homes.

“Old places are being bought up and vastly altered by very large constructions,” Stanford said. “And the downside of that is big places are disturbing and displacing more land.”

But Stanford and Young aren’t gloomy about the future of Flathead Lake. Just as there has been steady development, there have been steady efforts to protect and improve water quality.

Those efforts go back to the dye testing, and improved septic and sewer systems, and a grass-roots campaign in the early 1980s to ban phosphorus from all laundry detergents sold in the Flathead Basin.

“It was one simple thing we could do to reduce algae blooms” that result from nitrates and phosphates mixing, said Young, who was active in promoting the phosphorus ban as a member of the Flathead Lake Protection Association.

There have been efforts among private landowners in just the last two years to protect wetlands on the north shore with gravel beaches, the method long advocated by the biological station.

There also have been major efforts to protect the river corridor north of the lake. While construction has occurred on the Flathead River, there are still long stretches of undeveloped waterfront in the heart of the Flathead Valley. And that’s partly due to the efforts of groups like the Flathead Land Trust, the Montana Land Reliance and the Nature Conservancy.

The three organizations have secured voluntary conservation agreements protecting 3,324 acres from development along the Flathead River south of Kalispell. Most of the agreements have come about in just the last few years, said Marilyn Wood, the Flathead Land Trust’s conservation director.

“It’s very impressive,” Wood said. “It indicates that we have a really good start on working to conserve those sloughs and riparian areas that are critical to water quality.”

Wood said she expects the momentum to continue, partly because of recent legislation that expands federal tax incentives for landowners who participate in conservation easement programs.

Both Stanford and Young are optimistic that there will be increasing public awareness of the sheer economic value of the lake and river system. In a recent speech, Stanford estimated the economic value of Flathead Lake at $6 billion to $10 billion.

Stanford says the basin’s clear waters are nearly omnipresent in advertising and promotions for everything from real estate to recreation.

“It’s the very character of the water that brings people here,” Stanford said.

Growing awareness of that economic value will result in improved land use practices, he predicts. Things as simple as using gravel beaches and natural vegetation rather than seawalls and riprap to protect shorelines will add up for the benefit of water quality, he said.

Stanford hopes that someday the basin’s water quality is valued to a point where it is as iconic as the bald eagle, a species that nearly every person would feel terrible about harming today.